Unit 2: Institutions

Chief Legislator

The President helps shape laws by recommending policies, working with United States Congress to pass them, and either signing bills into law or vetoing them.

Chief Economist

The President is responsible for overseeing the nation’s economy and creating programs or policies designed to promote economic stability and help Americans prosper.

Party Leader

Highest ranking member of the party and shapes the party’s platform.

Chief Diplomat

The President directs United States foreign policy by leading relationships with other countries, negotiating and signing treaties, and formally receiving foreign ambassadors and diplomats.

Commander-in-Chief

The President holds ultimate authority over the nation's armed forces, responsible for military operations and national security.

Chief Executive

The President serves as the head of federal agencies and chief decision-maker, and—along with the approval of the United States Senate—appoints officials in the executive and judicial branches.

Head of State/Chief of State

The President serves as a national symbol for United States, helping unite the country while performing ceremonial duties such as meeting foreign leaders, dignitaries, and honored guests.

Take Care Clause

Mandates that the President "shall take Care that the Laws be faithfully executed". requires the President to ensure that all federal laws are faithfully enforced.

Vesting Clause

A contract or legal provision that defines when a person officially gains full ownership of rights, assets, or company shares over time.

Double Expectations Gap

The difference between what people expect the President to do and what the Constitution actually allows, especially since the President is expected to handle many conflicting roles at the same time.

22nd Amendment

Limits the President to a maximum of two elected terms in office (eight years total).

25th Amendment

Establishes clear procedures for presidential succession and disability.

FDR’s influence on the powers of the modern presidency

Expanded the powers of the modern presidency by using the federal government more actively to address national problems,presidents should take strong leadership in shaping laws, managing the economy, and responding to crises.

War Powers Act (1973)

This Act requires the President to inform United States Congress within 48 hours of sending troops, regularly consult and report to them, and remove the troops within 60 days (with a possible 30-day extension) unless Congress approves a longer action or declares war.

Legislative Powers

The President has the power to influence and check the lawmaking branch by proposing ideas in the State of the Union address, approving or vetoing bills, but not having the power to veto only specific parts of a bill (no line-item veto).

Judicial Power

The President has the power to nominate federal judges, direct the United States Department of Justice to support certain legal cases, and use the pardon power to forgive or reduce punishments for federal crimes.

Executive Agreements

Bilateral or multi-lateral agreements with foreign nations

Executive orders

Directives/directions that require executive agencies to take specific actions

Emergency Powers

To temporarily enhance executive power during unexpected crises that are moving too fast for Congress to respond.

Executive privilege

Used to claim confidentiality of documents and personnel

Presidential Immunity

The concept of providing former presidents with absolute immunity from criminal prosecution for actions taken within their core constitutional powers, and at least a presumption of immunity for all official acts.

Insurrection Act (1792)

This authority lets the President use the military inside the United States to restore order, enforce the law, or stop violence when local authorities cannot handle the crisis, making it a key exception to the Posse Comitatus Act.

Posse Comitatus Act (1878)

Bars federal troops from participating in civilian law enforcement except when expressly authorized by law.

Trustee Model

A representative uses their best judgment, and the people rely on their representative's expertise and judgment.

Delegate Model

True representation is when a representative follow their constituents' preferences.

Checks & Balances

The principle that allows each branch of govt. to exercise some form of control over the others.

Oversight

Congress checks the executive branch via hearings, investigations, budgeting, through committees & subcommittees.

Advice & Consent of the Senate

Treaty-making; Presidential appointments.

Impeachments

To safeguard against executive tyranny.

Representation

Working on behalf of one's constituents.

Lawmaking

Passing laws that serve both local and national interests.

Partisanship

Party loyalty.

Policy Representation

Advance constituent issues through policymaking.

Allocative Representation.

Get projects & grants for the district. Pork Barrel, earmarks.

Symbolic Representations

Representing American ideals & values.

Casework

Helps a constituent with the federal bureaucracy.

Hyper-partisanship

A commitment to a party so strong that it comes before other commitments.

Polarization

Large ideological differences between the 2 parties.

Divided Government

When the President is from a different party than the majority in one or both house/chambers.

Incumbency Advantage

Stronger name recognition, easier access to media coverage, campaign contributions, casework, franking.

U.S. Senators for California

Alex Padilla & Adam Schiff.

Reapportionment

Take 435 House seats and re-distribute based on charges in state populations, determined by the census which happens every 10 years

Redistricting

Redrawing the boundaries of a HOR (congressional) district w/in each state, based on the reapportionment from the census, can protect or weaken a person's voice/political power.

Gerrymandering

If boundary lines are drawn to benefit an incumbent, a political party, or a racial group.

Packing

Packing a district with like-minded voters.

Bleaching

Packing a district with same race/ethnicity.

Cracking

Separation in order for diluting votes.

Hijacking

Putting an incumbent that you don’t like in another district where they have to run against another incumbent.

Kidnapping

Drawn lines so a candidate is moved out of their district.

California Legislature

The lawmaking body of California made up of the State Assembly and State Senate.

Difference from U.S. Congress

California legislators represent smaller districts and fewer people and have term limits, unlike members of Congress.

California Assembly Terms

2 years.

California Senate Terms

4 years.

California Legislative Term Limits

Legislators may serve 12 total years in either chamber.

California State Assembly

80 members.

California State Senate

40 members.

Initiative Process

Allows citizens to propose and vote on laws directly, reducing the Legislature’s control over lawmaking.

Line Item Veto

Power of the governor to reject specific spending items in a budget bill without vetoing the entire bill.

Apportionment

Process of distributing legislative seats among districts based on population.

District Size (California)

Legislative districts are smaller than congressional districts, meaning representatives serve fewer people.

Proposition 11

Created the Citizens’ Redistricting Commission to draw state legislative districts instead of the Legislature.

Proposition 27

Attempted to eliminate the Citizens’ Redistricting Commission but voters rejected it.

Citizens’ Redistricting Commission

Independent citizen body that draws California’s legislative and congressional district maps.

Mid-Decade Redistricting

Redrawing district maps before the next census, which is controversial because it may be politically motivated.

Proposition 50

A proposed measure related to redistricting rules and timing (depending on course context).

Marbury v. Madison (1803)

Supreme Court case that established judicial review.

Judicial Review

The power of courts to declare laws unconstitutional. Established by the Supreme Court.