APUSH Final Semester Review (Periods 1-5)

Natives of the Americas – environmental impacts on culture, way of life, agriculture, trade, hunting etc.

The indigenous peoples of the Americas developed cultures deeply interconnected with their environments, shaping their way of life, agriculture, and trade. For example, in fertile regions like the Mississippi River Valley, agricultural societies thrived, cultivating maize, beans, and squash using sophisticated techniques. In contrast, Plains tribes relied on hunting bison, which influenced their nomadic lifestyles. The availability of resources dictated trade routes, fostering exchanges of goods like obsidian, turquoise, and foodstuffs between regions. Environmental changes or disruptions, such as droughts, could significantly impact these systems, altering settlement patterns and cultural practices.

Mississippi River Valley

It was home to complex and agriculturally advanced societies, such as the Mississippian culture (e.g., Cahokia). These societies built large earthen mounds and developed trade networks, political hierarchies, and religious systems. The fertile soil supported the "Three Sisters" (maize, beans, and squash) agriculture, enabling population growth and urbanization.

Southwest/Great Basin

It was characterized by dry climates, leading to the development of irrigation systems by groups like the Ancestral Puebloans to grow crops such as corn and beans. With its more sparse resources, the Great Basin fostered a nomadic lifestyle focused on hunting and gathering. Cultural adaptations in both areas were closely tied to water scarcity and the desert environment.

Plains Region

Were dominated by wandering tribes that relied on bison hunting for food, clothing, and tools. Following the introduction of horses by Europeans, Plains societies became highly mobile, facilitating trade and warfare. The environment shaped their social structures, seasonal migrations, and dependence on natural cycles.

Southeastern US

This region supported rich agricultural societies like the Creek, Cherokee, and Choctaw, with economies based on maize cultivation, hunting, and fishing. The warm climate and abundant rivers allowed for complex political systems and trade networks, with cultural practices often linked to the rhythms of the seasons and natural resources.

Pacific Northwest

The Pacific Northwest was abundant in marine and forest resources, leading to the development of complex, sedentary societies such as the Tlingit and Haida. These groups relied heavily on fishing, especially salmon, and built large, ornate plank houses. Totem poles and potlatch ceremonies reflected their rich cultural traditions and social hierarchies.

Great Lakes Region

Supported the Algonquin and Iroquoian peoples, who utilized the extensive waterways for fishing, trade, and transportation. Forest resources allowed for the construction of longhouses and canoes, while the lakes facilitated interaction and alliances, such as the Iroquois Confederacy.

Eastern Seaboard

It had mild temperatures, many forests, a variety of wildlife, and supported diverse societies like the Powhatan and Wampanoag. These groups practiced a mixed economy of agriculture, hunting, and fishing. Proximity to the Atlantic facilitated early interactions with European colonists, profoundly impacting trade, alliances, and conflicts.

Relationship between the Spanish and Natives

Was characterized by both cooperation and conflict. The Spanish sought to convert Native populations to Christianity, often through missions, while exploiting them for labor and resources. Many Indigenous communities resisted Spanish conquest and colonization, leading to violent conflicts such as the Pueblo Revolt. However, some Native groups allied with the Spanish to gain advantages over rival tribes. This complex dynamic led to significant cultural and demographic changes, often devastating for Native populations due to disease and exploitation.

Encomienda System

Was a Spanish labor system in which conquistadors and colonists were granted control over Indigenous communities in exchange for protecting them and converting them to Christianity. In practice, it resulted in the forced labor and severe exploitation of Native Americans, particularly in agriculture and mining. The system contributed to the decimation of Indigenous populations through harsh conditions, overwork, and exposure to European diseases, while enriching the Spanish Empire.

Colombian Exchange

Refers to the vast transfer of plants, animals, culture, people, and diseases between the Americas, Europe, and Africa following Columbus's voyages. It introduced crops like maize, potatoes, and tomatoes to Europe, transforming diets and economies, while bringing wheat, sugar, and livestock such as horses and cattle to the Americas. The exchange also included devastating impacts, such as the introduction of smallpox and other diseases to Native populations, which caused widespread mortality and societal collapse. Conversely, it facilitated global economic and cultural interconnections that reshaped the world.

Massachusetts Bay Religious Practices

Founded by Puritans seeking to establish a "city upon a hill," Massachusetts Bay was a theocratic society with strict adherence to Puritan beliefs. Religious dissenters like Anne Hutchinson and Roger Williams were banished.

Massachusetts Bay Key Figures

John Winthrop, the colony’s first governor, emphasized moral leadership and community cohesion through Puritanism.

Roger Williams, who refused to associate with the Anglican Puritans. His “dangerous views,” including his belief that the magistrates had no right to interfere in matters of religion, led to his banishment from the Bay Colony.

Anne Hutchinson identified individual intuition (rather than the observance of institutionalized beliefs and the dictates of ministers) as the path to reaching God and attaining salvation. Her naysaying of what she saw as the Bay Colony Puritans’ narrowly legalistic concept of morality later sentenced her to banishment.

Massachusetts Bay Economics

Their economy was based on agriculture, fishing, shipbuilding, and trade, supported by a communal ethos.

Massachusetts Bay Social Issues

The Puritans emphasized education and moral discipline, establishing schools and Harvard College. However, their intolerance for religious diversity caused internal divisions and a severe lack of religious diversity.

Massachusetts Bay Legislation

The Mayflower Compact (1620) laid the foundation for self-governance and majority rule, though primarily in Plymouth, which influenced the broader New England colonies.

The Massachusetts Bay Colony charter of 1629 was a royal document that gave the Massachusetts Bay Company permission by the English crown to establish a self-governing colony (a charter colony rather than a royal colony or a proprietary colony) in New England.

Middle Atlantic Religious Practices

The Middle Colonies, including Pennsylvania, New York, and New Jersey, were religiously diverse, accommodating Quakers, Catholics, Jews, and Protestants. Pennsylvania, founded by William Penn, became a haven for Quakers and promoted religious tolerance.

Middle Atlantic Key Figures

William Penn emphasized peace and equality, famously signing Penn's Treaty (1683) with the Lenape, fostering amicable relations with Native Americans.

Benjamin Franklin, a prominent statesman, author, and inventor who played a key role in the American Revolution.

Middle Atlantic Economics

Fertile land supported mixed farming, and the region became known as the "breadbasket" for its grain exports. Cities like Philadelphia and New York were major trade hubs.

Middle Atlantic Social Issues

The Middle Colonies were more socially inclusive than New England and the South, with ethnic and religious diversity leading to a relatively stable society.

Middle Atlantic Legislation

Penn’s advocacy for tolerance and Penn’s Frame of Government influenced ideas of democracy and governance in America.

To force compliance with the Mercantile System, England — and later Britain — enacted the Navigation Acts. They were a series of laws passed by Parliament designed to regulate and control the shipping of raw materials and products within the empire.

Chesapeake/Southern Religious Practices

While the Chesapeake (e.g., Virginia, Maryland) and Southern colonies (e.g., Carolinas, Georgia) were primarily Anglican, religious tolerance was limited. Maryland enacted the Maryland Toleration Act (1649), allowing freedom for Christians but penalizing non-Christians.

Chesapeake/Southern Key Figures

John Smith played a critical role in the early survival of Virginia’s Jamestown, and Lord Baltimore promoted religious tolerance in Maryland.

Thomas Jefferson not only lived in Virginia his entire life, he was also a founding father and third president of the United States and was an early and vocal supporter of America’s independence from Great Britain.

Chesapeake/Southern Economics

The economy relied heavily on cash crops like tobacco, rice, and indigo, cultivated using enslaved labor and indentured servitude.

Chesapeake/Southern Social Issues

The rise of plantation economies created a rigid social hierarchy, with landowners at the top and enslaved people and poor laborers at the bottom.

Chesapeake/Southern Legislation

The Navigation Acts enforced mercantilism policies, restricting trade to benefit England and often frustrating colonial merchants.

Chesapeake/Southern Key Movements

Bacon’s Rebellion (1676) in Virginia highlighted tensions between wealthy landowners and poorer settlers, as well as conflicts over Native American policies. This event led to an increase in reliance on enslaved African labor to reduce dependence on potentially rebellious indentured servants.

French and Indian War

Part of the larger Seven Years' War, was a conflict between Britain and France (and their respective Native allies) over territorial control in North America, particularly the Ohio River Valley. Britain emerged victorious, gaining control of French Canada and lands east of the Mississippi. However, the war left Britain in significant debt, prompting taxes and policies that fueled colonial resentment. The Proclamation of 1763, which restricted westward expansion, further angered colonists eager for land.

Salutary Neglect

A British policy of loosely enforcing colonial regulations, allowing colonies to develop self-governance and trade independence. Its end after the French and Indian War marked a turning point in colonial dissatisfaction.

Mercantilism

An economic theory emphasizing the accumulation of wealth through trade regulation, with colonies serving the economic interests of the mother country. Britain’s enforcement of mercantilist policies through the Navigation Acts and taxes alienated colonists.

Sugar Act (1764)

Taxed sugar and molasses, aiming to curb smuggling and raise revenue.

Stamp Act (1765)

Imposed a direct tax on printed materials, sparking widespread protests and the formation of the Stamp Act Congress.

Townshend Acts (1767)

Taxed goods like glass, tea, and paper, leading to boycotts and heightened tensions.

Tea Act (1773)

Granted the British East India Company a monopoly on tea, leading to the Boston Tea Party.

Intolerable Acts (1774)

Corrective measures following the Boston Tea Party, including closing Boston Harbor and revoking Massachusetts’ charter, galvanizing colonial unity.

Pre-revolutionary Protests and Boycotts

Organized resistance, such as the Sons of Liberty and widespread non-importation agreements, demonstrated growing colonial solidarity.

Committees of Correspondence

Networks for communication between colonies which promoted cooperation and resistance to British policies.

The First Continental Congress (1774)

On September 5, 1774, delegates from each of the 13 colonies—except Georgia, which was fighting a Native American uprising and was dependent on the British for military supplies—met at Carpenters’ Hall in Philadelphia as the First Continental Congress to organize colonial resistance to the Intolerable Acts (or Coercive Acts). Convened to address colonial grievances, marking a step toward intercolonial unity.

Boston Massacre (1770)

The killing of five colonists by British soldiers inflamed anti-British sentiment.

Boston Tea Party (1773)

A dramatic protest against the Tea Act, symbolizing defiance against British control.

Major pre-revolutionary figures from Great Britain

King George III: The monarch during the period, seen by colonists as a symbol of British oppression.

Lord North: British Prime Minister during many of the crisis years; his policies were deeply unpopular in the colonies.

George Grenville: Architect of the Stamp Act and other revenue measures, contributing to colonial unrest.

Major pre-revolutionary figures from the US

Samuel Adams: A leader of the Sons of Liberty and a key figure in organizing resistance and protests.

Patrick Henry: Known for his fiery rhetoric, including the famous "Give me liberty, or give me death!" speech.

Benjamin Franklin: Advocated for colonial unity through proposals like the Albany Plan and played a diplomatic role in addressing grievances with Britain.

John Adams: A lawyer and early advocate for independence who defended British soldiers after the Boston Massacre to demonstrate colonial commitment to justice.

Paul Revere: A silversmith and propagandist whose famous "midnight ride" warned of British troop movements.

Post Revolution Society Issues with the Federal Government

Weak Central Authority: Congress lacked the power to levy taxes, regulate interstate or foreign trade, or enforce laws, making the government reliant on state contributions.

Economic Instability: The government couldn’t address national debt or create a stable currency, leading to widespread economic unrest.

Lack of Unity: States operated like independent nations, creating conflicts over trade policies, boundaries, and differing laws.

Military Weakness: The inability to fund or maintain a standing army left the nation vulnerable to internal uprisings and foreign threats.

Articles of Confederation

(ratified in 1781) served as the first constitution of the United States. While they established the framework for a national government, the Articles prioritized state sovereignty over federal power.

Key Features of the Articles of Confederation

Unicameral Legislature: Each state had one vote in Congress, regardless of population.

No Executive or Judicial Branch: The lack of a president or national courts weakened the government’s ability to enforce laws or resolve disputes.

Amendment Challenges: Amendments required unanimous consent, making it nearly impossible to address shortcomings.

Despite its weaknesses, the Articles achieved some successes, such as the Northwest Ordinance (1787), which established a framework for westward expansion and prohibited slavery in new territories.

Post Revolution Economic status and Interstate Conflicts

Post-war debt, inflation, and trade disputes highlighted the need for a stronger federal government to stabilize the economy. Disputes over trade and tariffs between states revealed the need for a unified economic policy.

Shays’ Rebellion

An armed uprising of farmers in Massachusetts, protesting high taxes and economic hardship, underscored the federal government’s inability to maintain order or support struggling citizens.

Annapolis Convention (1786)

A meeting to address trade and commerce issues exposed the broader weaknesses of the Articles and led to the call for a Constitutional Convention. Influential leaders like George Washington, Alexander Hamilton, and James Madison advocated for a new constitution to replace the Articles with a stronger federal government.

Constitutional Convention of 1787

Where the current U.S. Constitution was drafted, creating a more balanced and effective federal system.

Early United States Legislation (1789-1800)

Judiciary Act of 1789: Established the federal judiciary system, including the Supreme Court and lower courts.

Tariff Act of 1789: Imposed duties on imports to raise revenue and protect American industry.

Bank Act of 1791: Chartered the First Bank of the United States, supporting a centralized financial system.

Jay’s Treaty (1794)

Resolved lingering disputes with Britain, including British withdrawal from forts in the Northwest Territory, though it was criticized for not addressing impressment of American sailors.

Pinckney’s Treaty (1795)

Negotiated with Spain, granting Americans navigation rights on the Mississippi River and access to New Orleans.

The Whiskey Rebellion (1794)

Arose in response to an excise tax on whiskey, testing federal authority. Washington’s decisive deployment of troops reaffirmed the strength of the new government.

Adams Administration Legislation - Alien and Sedition Acts (1798)

Four laws targeting immigrants and critics of the government, including increased residency requirements for citizenship and criminalizing speech critical of the government.

Adams Administration Actions - Quasi-War (1798–1800)

An undeclared naval conflict with France resulting from tensions over French privateering and diplomatic failures like the XYZ Affair.

Adams Administration Actions - Creation of the Navy Department (1798)

Strengthened naval forces to counter French threats.

Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions (1798–1799)

Drafted by Jefferson and Madison, these documents argued that states could nullify unconstitutional federal laws, challenging federal authority.

Adams Administration Public Opinion and Partisan Tensions

Federalist support for the acts alienated many voters, contributing to the Democratic-Republican victory in the 1800 election.The Alien and Sedition Acts were highly controversial, seen by many as a violation of free speech and an overreach of federal power.

Causes of the War of 1812

British Impressment of American Sailors: The British Navy forcibly conscripted American sailors into their ranks, violating U.S. sovereignty and enraging the public.

Interference with American Trade: British and French restrictions on American shipping during the Napoleonic Wars disrupted U.S. trade and led to economic tensions.

Territorial Expansion Desires: Many Americans, especially War Hawks like Henry Clay and John C. Calhoun, wanted to expand into British-held Canada and Spanish-held Florida.

Support for Native Resistance: Britain provided weapons and support to Native American tribes resisting U.S. expansion, such as those led by Tecumseh in the Northwest Territory.

Failed Diplomacy: Measures like the Embargo Act (1807) and Non-Intercourse Act (1809) failed to resolve conflicts, leading to growing calls for war as a means of protecting U.S. interests and honor.

Effects of the War of 1812

Increased Nationalism: The war fostered a sense of pride and identity, especially after key victories like the Battle of New Orleans, even though the war ended in a stalemate.

Weakened Native American Resistance: The defeat of Tecumseh’s Confederacy and other Native alliances reduced resistance to U.S. expansion in the Northwest and South.

Economic Changes: The war disrupted trade but encouraged domestic manufacturing, laying the groundwork for industrial growth in the U.S.

Collapse of the Federalist Party: Federalist opposition to the war, particularly at the Hartford Convention, made the party appear unpatriotic, leading to its political demise.

U.S.-British Relations: The Treaty of Ghent (1814) restored pre-war boundaries without addressing impressment or trade issues but marked the beginning of improved U.S.-British relations.

Territorial Expansion: While no land changed hands in the treaty, the war opened the door for westward expansion as British support for Native groups diminished.

Causes of Early Industrialization

Early industrialization was driven by technological innovations like the cotton gin and textile mills, increased demand for goods, improved transportation networks (canals and railroads), and the availability of capital for investment. The Embargo Act of 1807 and the War of 1812 also encouraged domestic manufacturing due to disrupted foreign trade.

Groups contributing to early industrialization

Skilled artisans, investors, entrepreneurs, and farm families—particularly women and children in the Lowell System—were key contributors to early industrialization by providing labor and capital.

Areas of the US that industrialized first

The Northeastern United States, particularly New England, industrialized first due to its access to waterways for powering mills, dense population centers for labor, and established trade infrastructure.

Which group eventually replaced the early workers in the factories?

Immigrant labor, particularly from Ireland and Germany, replaced many of the early factory workers as industrialization expanded, providing a steady and inexpensive workforce.

American System Definition

Proposed by Henry Clay, was an economic plan emphasizing a strong national bank, protective tariffs, and federal investment in internal improvements like roads and canals to promote industrial and agricultural growth.

How did the American System unify the country?

The system aimed to create economic interdependence between regions, with the North producing manufactured goods, the South and West supplying raw materials, and improved transportation facilitating trade and communication. The plan deepened sectional divisions as Southern states opposed protective tariffs and federal infrastructure projects, viewing them as benefiting the North at their expense.

Results/effects of the American System

While it contributed to economic growth and infrastructure development, such as the Erie Canal, opposition to its policies highlighted growing tensions that eventually led to the Civil War.

Missouri Compromise Purpose

Aimed to maintain a balance of power between slave and free states by admitting Missouri as a slave state and Maine as a free state, while also establishing the 36°30' parallel as the dividing line for slavery in the western territories.

Missouri Compromise Effects

Temporarily eased tensions between the North and South over the expansion of slavery, but it also deepened sectional divisions and set the stage for future conflicts, such as the Kansas-Nebraska Act and the Civil War.

Reason the Missouri Compromise was eventually repealed

Was repealed by the Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854, which allowed settlers in those territories to decide the slavery issue through popular sovereignty, effectively nullifying the 36°30' line.

2nd Great Awakening Causes

Was fueled by a desire for religious revival in response to the perceived decline of religious fervor, the rise of rationalism, and the growth of the market economy, which led to increased social and moral concerns.

2nd Great Awakening Key Figures

Charles Grandison Finney, an evangelist who emphasized personal salvation and social reform.

Lyman Beecher, a preacher who advocated for temperance and moral improvement.

2nd Great Awakening Effects

The movement led to widespread religious enthusiasm, the growth of new denominations, and a focus on individual salvation, while also encouraging social reforms like the abolition of slavery, women's rights, and temperance.

2nd Great Awakening Religion & Reforms

Spurred the establishment of numerous religious and reform organizations and linked religion with social causes, leading to the formation of movements such as the abolitionist and women's rights movements, as well as the temperance movement.

Women’s Rights Movement Key Figures

Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Lucretia Mott, and Susan B. Anthony

Seneca Falls Convention (1848)

Organized by Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott, where the "Declaration of Sentiments" was presented, demanding equal rights for women, including the right to vote.

Other movements of which women were part in antebellum America

Women were also active in the abolitionist movement, advocating for the end of slavery, and the temperance movement, which sought to reduce alcohol consumption and its negative social effects.

Degree of success in what women wanted to accomplish (Women’s Rights Movement)

The movement made significant progress in raising awareness and encouraging advocacy for gender equality, but it did not achieve suffrage or full legal equality until the early 20th century, with the passage of the 19th Amendment in 1920.

Which two groups came to the US in large numbers between the 1840s and 1860s?

Irish and German immigrants came to the United States, primarily due to economic hardship and political unrest in their home countries.

Which religion did German and Irish immigrants practice? (1840s-1860s)

The majority of Irish immigrants were Roman Catholic, while many German immigrants were also Catholic, though a significant number were Protestant.

Where did German and Irish immigrants live in the US? (1840s-1860s)

Most Irish immigrants settled in urban areas on the East Coast, especially in cities like New York and Boston, while Germans tended to settle in both urban areas and rural regions, particularly in the Midwest.

Which group rejected German and Irish immigrants? (1840s-1860s)

Nativists, particularly those involved in the Know-Nothing Party, rejected the new immigrants, viewing them as a threat to American values, jobs, and political power. They were concerned about the influence of Catholicism on American society and feared that the large influx of immigrants would lead to competition for jobs, political power, and a shift in the nation's cultural identity.

Causes of Manifest Destiny

Was driven by a belief in American exceptionalism, the desire for territorial expansion, and the notion that the U.S. was destined by God to spread democracy and civilization across the North American continent.

Manifest Destiny - Major Events

Included the annexation of Texas (1845), the Mexican-American War (1846–1848), and the Oregon Trail migration (1840s), which led to the acquisition of vast territories through treaties like the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo and the Oregon Treaty.

Manifest Destiny - Key Figures

President James K. Polk (pushed for westward expansion) and figures like Henry Clay, Daniel Webster, and John L. O’Sullivan (popularized the concept of Manifest Destiny)

Supporters of Manifest Destiny

Democrats and expansionist politicians, settlers looking for land, and advocates of American nationalism who believed in the moral superiority of the U.S. system.

Critics of Manifest Destiny

Included abolitionists, who feared the spread of slavery into new territories, and Native American rights activists, who opposed the displacement and violence against indigenous peoples resulting from expansion.

Reasons why states seceded

Southern states seceded from the Union primarily due to disagreements over slavery, its expansion into new territories, and fears of losing political power in the federal government. Economic differences, states' rights, and cultural tensions between the North and South also played significant roles.

Secession Key Figures

Jefferson Davis (the President of the Confederacy), Robert E. Lee (the leading general of the Confederate Army), and Southern politicians like John C. Calhoun (strongly advocated for states' rights and the protection of slavery).

What was formed as a result of secession?

The Confederate States of America (CSA) was formed in 1861, composed of 11 southern states that seceded from the Union, with Davis as its president.

How did manifest destiny and sectionalism contribute to secession?

They intensified the debate over whether new territories acquired through westward expansion (like from the Mexican-American War) would permit slavery, exacerbating sectional tensions. Sectionalism, the growing divide between the North (industrial, anti-slavery) and the South (agricultural, pro-slavery), deepened as each region prioritized its own economic interests and political power, leading to the eventual collapse of the Union.

Radical/ congressional Reconstruction

Was led by the Republican-dominated Congress, which aimed to reshape the South by ensuring civil rights for freed slaves. The Reconstruction Acts divided the South into military districts and required states to ratify the 14th Amendment and grant voting rights to African American men before rejoining the Union.

Presidential Reconstruction

Initiated by Abraham Lincoln and continued by Andrew Johnson, sought a lenient approach to reintegrate the Southern states quickly. It offered pardons to many former Confederates and allowed states to rejoin the Union once they abolished slavery, though it did not ensure full civil rights for African Americans.

Redeemers

Were Southern Democrats who sought to reclaim control of state governments from Republicans and remove Reconstruction-era policies. They were often former Confederates who aimed to restore white supremacy, and they used tactics like voter suppression and violence to reassert control.

Waving the Bloody Shirt

Was a Republican strategy used to remind Northern voters of the Civil War’s violence and the South’s rebellion, framing Democrats as disloyal and responsible for the war, which helped maintain Republican dominance in the post-war years.

Social Impacts of Reconstruction

Reconstruction brought significant social changes, including the formal end of slavery and the establishment of the Freedmen’s Bureau to assist former slaves. However, social segregation persisted, and many African Americans continued to face discrimination, violence, and economic hardship.

Political Impacts of Reconstruction

Reconstruction led to the passage of the 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments, which granted freedom, citizenship, and voting rights to African Americans. However, the end of Reconstruction in 1877 allowed Southern states to enact Jim Crow laws and disenfranchise African Americans through voter literacy tests and poll taxes.

Economic Impacts of Reconstruction

The Civil War devastated the South’s economy, and Reconstruction struggled to rebuild it. Sharecropping and tenant farming became widespread, keeping many African Americans and poor whites in a cycle of poverty. The North, meanwhile, saw rapid industrial growth, furthering economic divides between the regions.

Joint Stock Companies

Allowed investors to pool their money into an economic venture. A new “colony” would provide new markets for exports in support of mercantilist theory. Led to promise of more jobs in mother country and new world.

Push Factors for English settlement

Population boom that led to overcrowding in English urban areas, sanitation issues causing disease, unemployment/economic problems, primogeniture