Psychology: Critical Thinking, Research Methods, and Statistics (Notes)

Vocabulary-style flashcards covering key terms from Critical Thinking, Research Methods, and Statistics.

Critical Thinking

Thinking that does not blindly accept arguments; examines assumptions, assesses the source, discerns hidden biases, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.

Hindsight Bias

The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it (the 'I-knew-it-all-along' phenomenon).

Social Desirability Bias

A tendency of survey respondents to answer questions in a manner that will be viewed favorably by others.

Self-Report Bias

The tendency for people to inaccurately report their own behaviors, thoughts, or feelings due to memory limitations or social pressures.

Research Foundations Theory

An explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events.

Hypothesis

A testable prediction, often implied by a theory.

Operational Definition

A carefully worded statement of the exact procedures used in a research study.

Replication

Repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding can be reproduced.

Peer Reviewers

Scientific experts who evaluate a research article's theory, originality, and accuracy before recommending its publication.

Case Study

A descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles.

Naturalistic Observation

A descriptive technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate or control the situation.

Survey

A descriptive technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group.

Sampling Bias

A flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample.

Random Sample

A sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion.

Population

All those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn.

Correlation

A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other.

Correlation Coefficient

A statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1.00 to +1.00).

Variable

Anything that can vary and is feasible and ethical to measure.

Scatterplot

A graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables.

Illusory Correlation

Perceiving a relationship where none exists, or perceiving a stronger-than-actual relationship.

Regression Toward the Mean

The tendency for extreme or unusual scores or events to fall back (regress) toward the average.

Experiment

A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable).

Experimental Group

In an experiment, the group exposed to the treatment (one version of the independent variable).

Control Group

In an experiment, the group not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.

Random Assignment

Assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between the different groups.

Single-Blind Procedure

An experimental procedure in which the research participants are ignorant (blind) about whether they have received the treatment or a placebo.

Double-Blind Procedure

An experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo.

Placebo Effect

Experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition.

Independent Variable

In an experiment, the factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.

Dependent Variable

In an experiment, the outcome that is measured; the variable that may change when the independent variable is manipulated.

Confounding Variable

A factor other than the factor being studied that might influence a research study's results.

Experimenter Bias

The unconscious tendency for researchers to treat members of the experimental and control groups differently to increase the chance of confirming their hypothesis.

Validity

The extent to which a test or experiment measures or predicts what it is supposed to.

Quantitative Research

Research that uses numerical data and statistical analysis.

Qualitative Research

Research that focuses on qualities and characteristics that cannot be easily measured numerically.

Informed Consent

Giving potential participants enough information about a study to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate.

Debriefing

The post-experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants.

Descriptive Statistics

Numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups (includes measures of central tendency and measures of variation).

Histogram

A bar graph depicting a frequency distribution.

Mode

The most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution.

Mean

The arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores.

Median

The middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below.

Percentile Rank

The percentage of scores in a distribution that a specific score is greater than or equal to.

Range

The difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution.

Standard Deviation

A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score.

Skewed Distribution

A representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value.

Normal Curve

A symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean and fewer and fewer near the extremes.

Inferential Statistics

Numerical data that allow one to generalize—to infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population.

Meta-Analysis

A statistical procedure for analyzing the results of multiple studies to reach an overall conclusion.

Statistical Significance

A statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance.

Effect Size

A statistical measure of the magnitude of an experimental effect.