AP US History Foreign Policy Part II: Interwar, WWII, and the Cold War

What did the Office of Price Administration (OPA) aim to control?

Full employment and consumer goods brought inflationary surge, which the OPA had to deal with extensive regulation.

Why was rationing introduced?

To keep the consumption of critical goods down.

What was the National War Labour Board?

Imposed ceilings on wage increases.

What did Labour Unions pledge during WWII?

They would not strike; however, they would go back on this promise, hosting strikes throughout the war.

What was the Smith Connolly Anti-Strike Act?

Following strikes threatening production, this act allowed authorities to seize tied up industries (coal and railroads). It also made strikes against a government-run industry a crime.

How did women participate in the war effort, and why was their role perhaps overblown?

Over 6 million women took up jobs in factories. However, women didn’t receive payment for their work, a majority of women didn’t work, and the majority of women who did work during the war vacated their jobs following the return of soldiers.

How did women serve in the army?

Women's Army Corps; women accepted as volunteers in emergency services; U.S. Coast Guard Women's Reserve.

What was the Bracero Program?

While farmers were partially exempted from the draft, the agricultural output of the U.S was slowed; therefore, this program saw the immigration of Mexicans to work in agricultural fields.

What was the impact of boom towns during the war?

Men and women were moving throughout the nation during the war for various reasons leading to booming towns.

What changes occurred to the south during the war?

FDR spent 6 billion dollars of federal money into industrial facilities as well as issuing defense contracts. Over 1.6 million African Americans left the south.

What was the impact of African Americans leaving the south?

Racial tensions exploded as African Americans who were migrating north competed for jobs with whites, bringing racial tensions to a national level.

In reaction to exploding racial tensions during the war, FDR implemented what following which threat?

Following the explosion of racial tensions and black activist A. Phillip Randolph threatening to march on Washington, FDR forbade racial discrimination in the armed forces and created the Fair Employment Practices Commission to ensure equal opportunities for African Americans in the army. However, while blacks were enlisted in the army, they served in segregated regiments.

What was the Double V?

A slogan created by African Americans which called for victory abroad and victory at home, triumphing over racism.

What was the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)?

A new militant organization committed to non-violent direct action.

Why did the exodus of African Americans from the south speed up following the end of the war?

The invention of the mechanical cotton gin rendered many African Americans' jobs useless as sharecroppers, and over 5 million tenants would leave the south.

What role did Native Americans play during WWII?

Thousands of Indians took up jobs to help the war effort, starting the trend of Native Americans moving to the city. Their most important job was working as Code Talkers, where the Navajo and Comanche transmitted codes in their language to deceive Japanese and German code breakers. Additionally, 25,000 Indians served in the American army.

Who were the Zootsuits?

Mexican Americans and Mexicans who dressed in a specific style of suit. Zootsuits would clash often with Americans throughout the war.

What was the impact for America as a result of being far away from the war?

It was able to prosper economically, leading to a massive boom.

What was the economic impact of WWII in America?

It lifted America out of depression. Gross national product rose from 100 billion to 200 billion. Corporate profits rose. Disposable income increased dramatically. Wartime taxes increased.

What was the impact of the war on the government?

The trend of more government involvement in the economy increased dramatically. All households participated in the government mandated rationing system. Millions worked for the armed forces, defense industry, and unions were monitored. Government-sponsored housing projects, daycare facilities, and health plans sprang up. Millions were donated to universities.

Explain the Japanese advance in East Asia prior to the United States fully deploying in the Pacific theatre.

The rapid approach of the Japanese was alarming and quick; Guam, Wake Island, the Philippines, Hong Kong, British Malaya, Burma, and the Dutch East Indies were all taken by Japan. They cut the Burma road, which had allowed the United States to supply China. Douglas MacArthur held out in Bataan, before he was ordered to retreat to Australia.

What was the significance of the Battle of the Coral Sea and the Battle of Midway?

Battle of the Coral Sea: Halted the Japanese advance and was the first naval air battle. Battle of Midway: Turning point of the Pacific theater as Admiral Chester L. Nimitz and Admiral Raymond A. Spruance commanded a smaller but skilled fleet to victory against the Japanese, destroying four Japanese carriers.

Explain the two campaigns conducted by the United States in the Pacific.

Guadalcanal to the Philippines: Conducted by MacArthur, American soldiers held onto Guadalcanal to keep the link between the allies and Australia. The Americans were able to secure it and push the Japanese back. They then secured the south of Papua before liberating the whole island. After securing Papua, MacArthur would secure the Philippine Islands. Island hopping campaign of Nimitz: Bypassing more fortified islands for less secured ones, then bombing the secured ones. Aleutian outposts retaken, Marshall Islands recaptured, 250 Japanese aircraft destroyed, and the Japanese navy destroyed in the Philippine Sea.

Explain the Battle of the Atlantic.

Hitler ordered wolf packs (submarines) to sink commercial ships in his continued attempt to starve Britain. Escorting convoys, depth charges, radar, and bombing of submarine bases helped win the battle. Enigma code cracked helped reveal the location of German u-boats, helping secure the Atlantic for the allies.

What were the three turning points of the European theatre?

British and American planes carpet-bombed Germany, helping alleviate besieged Britain. Bernard Montgomery, with the aid of American tanks, won the second battle of El Alamein, pushing the Germans and Italians back and securing the Suez Canal. Stalingrad: The Soviets were being pushed back before Stalin ordered a last-ditch holdout of the city, halting the Nazi advance.

Why did Stalin want the allies to open a second front, and why did Britain and America continue to delay?

The Soviets, who were being battered by the Nazis, wanted a second front to help alleviate their attack. However, while FDR promised to open a second front by the end of 1942, a lack of resources and British weariness of attacking France led the Americans to side with Britain’s idea of forcing the Germans out of North Africa and then attacking Italy.

Explain the allied victory in North Africa and the invasion of Italy.

The allies would squeeze the Germans out of North Africa with the Americans advancing from Algeria and the British advancing from Egypt; they would meet in Tunisia. Following their meetup, they would launch a joint invasion of Sicily before moving onto the Italian mainland. On the mainland, they faced stiff resistance from German divisions sent to Italy following the deposition of Mussolini and the Italians switching sides. However, following the battle of Monte Cassino, the allies would seize the city of Rome, before being bogged down in Italy until almost the end of the war; however, Italy would become a sideshow as resources were diverted towards Operation Overlord.

What was the Casablanca Conference and what was agreed between the U.S and Britain?

Meeting between FDR and Churchill where they agreed to invade Sicily, increase pressure on Italy and the Pacific, and insist upon unconditional surrender.

What was the impact of the allies’ commitment to unconditional surrender?

Issued to alleviate the fears of the suspicious Soviets, who feared a separate allied peace. While it possibly strengthened the resolve of the Axis powers, it also helped usher in a stronger post-war reconstruction.

What was the Tehran Conference?

Following Stalin's urging at the allies to open up a second front, Churchill, Stalin, and FDR met in Tehran to discuss policy. They agreed to a Soviet advance coupled with an allied advance from the west.

What was Operation Overlord, D-Day, and the liberation of France?

Preparations for the invasion of France were underway with 3 million men in Britain, along with munitions and supplies for said invasion. Command was given to Dwight D. Eisenhower. The allies would then launch their invasion of Normandy, while facing stiff resistance, with the aid of aircraft, deception tactics, and reinforcements they were able to secure Normandy. Coupled with a Franco-American landing in the South, France was liberated through bold strikes throughout the nation.

Explain the election of 1944.

Democratic Nomination: FDR: More attention was placed on the vice presidency: Harry S. Truman. Republican Nomination: Thomas E. Dewey. Democratic Platform: Winning the war and focusing on the new wartime prosperity. Republican platform: Time for a change from New Dealism, but would still continue the war. Outcome: FDR was winning the war, therefore winning him the election.

Explain the German Collapse and Victory in Europe.

The Germans seemed to be on their last legs in late 1944; however, Hitler attempted one last-ditch effort to push the allies back. The battle of the bulge pushed the surprised Americans back, but reinforcements and Brigadier General A. C. McAuliffe pushed and held the Nazis. The Americans would rush to the Rhine and finding one intact bridge, poured into Germany. The Soviets, advancing from the east, would seize Berlin and meet up with the Americans, with Hitler killing himself. Victory in Europe was declared on May 8th, 1945.

Explain Japan’s Defeat.

The conclusion of the island hopping; American submarines hounded Japanese merchant vessels, starving Japan. Three clashes at Leyte Gulf saw the destruction of the Japanese navy. Iwo Jima was captured. Okinawa: Seized and allowed the Americans to carpet bomb Japanese cities. With America advancing ever closer to the home islands, the Japanese became more desperate, eventually engaging in kamikaze acts. The Manhattan Project: The United States had been building an atomic bomb which was completed soon after Germany’s surrender. Therefore, due to worries over the costs it would incur to launch a full invasion of the Japanese mainland, fears of the Soviets seizing Japanese territory, and a desire to end the war as quickly as possible, the atomic bombs were dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Following the dropping of the atomic bombs, Japan would unconditionally surrender. The Soviets also invaded Manchuria and Korea to seize some spoils of war.

Why was WWII the best war fought by Americans?

More prepared, as they started militarizing a year and a half before Pearl Harbor. Resourceful, adaptive, and able to accommodate a ruthless enemy. American military leadership was excellent: Eisenhower and Nimitz. Churchill and FDR worked together closely which helped ease the war effort. Industrial leaders: Americans went into overdrive producing bullets, tanks, and other resources at an excessive amount, outproducing the Axis and making allied victory inevitable.

What was the Yalta Conference?

Meeting between the big 3 which ironed out what a post-war world would look like: Germany was to be divided into four occupation zones. Poland, Bulgaria, and Romania should have free and fair elections - broken by Stalin. International peacekeeping force: United Nations. FDR convinced Stalin to help with the Japanese. Stalin would invade Manchuria.

Why did the Cold War begin?

Communism and Capitalism were historically at odds with one another. The U.S. had refused to recognize Bolshevik Russia for 16 years, leading to mistrust. Soviet skepticism to the west: Delays in the opening of a second front. Soviets had no role in the development of the atomic bomb. The Lend-Lease Act was terminated by the U.S. The U.S. provided no money to help the Soviet Union rebuild following the end of the war. Stalin wanted friendly governments in Eastern Europe as he was weary of another stab in the back; however, this angered many in the west who saw it as blatant expansionism. Both sides weren’t used to the role of great power; therefore, they quickly became antagonistic to one another, coupled with their competing ideologies, as well as misconceptions with each other, propelled the descent into the Cold War.

How did the United States take the leading role in establishing a New World Order?

Bretton Woods Conference (1944): Established the International Monetary Fund to encourage trade by regulating currency exchange rates. International Bank (also founded at the Bretton Woods conference): Aimed at developing underdeveloped nations. The United Nations: Capitalizing on war idealism, this institution was implemented before the war's end. The successor to the LON, it differed in a few ways: Established a security council with each having a veto vote. General Assembly controlled by smaller nations. Established UN Trustee Council, UNESCO, Food and Agricultural Organization, and WHO.

What were the Nuremberg War Crime Trials?

Top Nazi officials were accused of crimes against war and humanity. These trials were conducted to eradicate Nazism from Germany.

What were the disagreements over Germany between the Soviets and the U.S., and what did they lead to?

The Soviets wanted Germany to be dismantled and extract enormous reparations while America at first wanted to dismantle Germany but realized that a robust and industrialized Germany was crucial to the recovery and strength of Western Europe. Eventually, disagreements over reparations and the federalization of Germany led to the Soviets gripping onto the eastern half of Germany and setting up a communist regime following the setting up of a Western-oriented regime in Western Germany. This would see the division of Germany.

How was Austria set up following the end of the war?

Like Germany, it was also divided into four occupation zones.

What was the Berlin Airlift?

Following disagreements over occupation zones and German currency reform, the Soviets completely shut off rail and highway access between West Germany and West Berlin to choke the allies out. In reaction, the U.S. would airlift supplies to the West Germans, with Stalin's bluff called, he ended the blockade.

Why did the partnership between the Soviets and the Americans collapse in the immediate aftermath of the war?

The blockade of Berlin, disagreements over the reunification of Germany, and the Soviets taking their time to leave Iran led the United States to view the Soviets as unwilling to cooperate with them.

What was the containment doctrine (Kennan Doctrine)?

This concept argued that Russia, in any form, was expansionary but also cautious; therefore, the expansion of the Kremlin could be stopped through containment and standing up to the Soviets.

What was the Truman Doctrine, and what was it issued in reaction to?

The United States had to protect people who are resisting subjugation by external or internal pressures and contain the spread of communism. The Truman Doctrine was issued in reaction to the communist threat in Greece, which a debt-burdened Britain could no longer deal with; therefore, Truman, fearing Soviet expansion into Western Europe, adopted Kennan's theory.

What was the reaction to the Truman Doctrine?

Many believed that Truman had needlessly divided the world into a pro-American and pro-Soviet camp, exacerbating the Cold War. However, apologists believed that Truman had to do this to prevent a slip into post-war isolationism.

Who was Reinhold Niebuhr?

A Protestant clergyman who supported Truman’s division of the post-war world into a pro-Soviet and pro-American camp.

What was the Marshall Plan and its impact?

Fearing the rising tide of communism in Western Europe, George Marshall proposed a plan to allocate over 12 billion dollars to the destroyed nations of Europe. While stunning Congress, following the outbreak of a communist revolution in Czechoslovakia, many feared the spread to the rest of Europe. This plan worked like a miracle, with Europe recovering and nations exceeding post-war output. Most importantly, however, communist revolutionaries lost their support, securing Western Europe and fostering European cooperation that laid the foundations for the European Community.

How did Truman interact with the Middle East?

Truman needed oil as the American oil supply had begun to run thin; however, the Arab states warned that if Israel was established, it would make relations more difficult. However, Truman recognized the state of Israel due to sympathy for Jews and wanting to cultivate Jewish voters.

What was the National Security Act (1947)?

Created the Department of Defense. Within the Department of Defense were the civilian securities of the Navy, Army, and Airforce: Joint Chiefs of Staff. National Security Council: Advised the president on security matters. CIA.

What was the Selection Service?

A peacetime draft which shaped young people's education and military development.

What was the North American Treaty Organisation (NATO)?

Democracies of Western Europe came together in the face of the new Soviet Threat. The United States was then invited to join and in a change of precedent, joined the alliance.

What were the ulterior motives for the United States joining NATO?

Keeping the Soviets in control, controlling a resurgent Germany, and reassuring Europe of American commitment.

Explain the reconstruction of Japan.

Unlike Germany, the post-war administration of Japan was much easier as only the United States administered it, under the effective dictatorship of Douglas MacArthur who rewrote the Japanese constitution, which declared an end to Japanese militarism, equal rights for women, and democracy. The Japanese, who were cooperative because they wanted to end occupation, were on a path to phenomenal political and economic recovery.

Explain the American 'failure' in China.

In 1949, following years of civil war, the communists triumphed against the nationalists led by Chiang Kai-shek. Throughout the civil war, the United States had only half-heartedly supported the Chinese government, and following its collapse to communism, Republicans took advantage of this situation and blamed Truman for allowing China to fall and 500 million people succumbing to communist rule. However, in reality, Shek had lost the war due to corruption and the lack of popular support the nationalists had among the people.

What was the impact of the development of the Hydrogen Bomb and the atomic arms race?

In 1949, the Soviets had replicated the atomic bomb. The U.S. didn’t want to give up their trump card, and Truman worried about what the Soviets could do with such power; therefore he authorized the development of the Hydrogen bomb, even with advice from the Atomic Energy Commission to not pursue this destructive path. However, the Soviets then replicated the H-bomb, leading to a nuclear arms race that threatened the destruction of the world.

Explain the Korean War.

Following the surrender of Japan, the Soviets and Americans divided Korea along the 38th parallel, while each side professed a desire to see a reunified Korea, both set up puppet governments poised to go to war with one another. However, when Secretary of State Acheson declared that Korea was outside of the United States defense perimeter, tensions seemed to cool. That was until North Korea invaded in 1950, pushing the South all the way to Pusan. The Soviets, who grudgingly supported the North, thought the United States wouldn’t get involved. However, with backing from the UN, the U.S. led a coalition under MacArthur who pushed the North almost to the border with China, who then sent reinforcements to the North, pushing the South back to the 38th parallel. While MacArthur called for a broader invasion of China, Truman, with one eye on the Soviets, feared the war opening up to a bigger nuclear conflict. Therefore, when a truce was called in 1953, it was supported by Truman.

What was the impact of the Korean War?

It proved to many that without vigorous containment of communism, it was destined to spread.

What was the National Security Memorandum Number 68 (NSC-68), and its impact?

Recommended that the U.S. quadruple its defense spending. While ignored at first, it was given new life following the outbreak of war in Korea. It saw the excessive military buildup with 3.5 million men under arms and 50 billion dollars assigned to defense spending (13% of GNP). This represented the militarization of the U.S. and the possibilities of the American economy.

What was the Eisenhower Doctrine and policy of boldness?

They were extensions of the Truman Doctrine of containment and called for the aggressive rolling back of communism instead of mere containment. Eisenhower hoped to accomplish this through the buildup of aircraft equipped with nuclear bombs, which he said was cheaper than traditional buildup of arms (it was not). Eisenhower practically guaranteed mutually assured destruction.

Explain the United States' relationship with the Soviets under Eisenhower.

Eisenhower wanted better relations with the Soviets, especially following the accession of Nikita Khrushchev to Soviet premier. However, Khrushchev rejected Eisenhower's proposal for open skies mutual inspection between the two.

What was the Hungarian Revolt, and its significance?

Hungarians rose up against the Soviets, and while asking for American assistance, it was ignored due to American fears of conflict with the Soviets; therefore, the revolt was crushed.

Explain America's relationship with Vietnam under Eisenhower.

Vietnam was in the middle of its war of independence against the French. America, who feared the spread of communism in Southeast Asia, provided economic assistance to France by providing over a billion dollars per year. However, French forces were defeated at the battle of Dien Bien Phu. While Secretary Dulles, VP Nixon, and the Joint Chiefs of Staff called for intervention, Eisenhower worried about full-fledged American involvement due to the unpopularity of another war in Asia so soon after Korea and fearing a lack of support from Britain. Therefore, Eisenhower supported peace with the communists, consenting to the division of Vietnam in return for nationwide elections; however, this never occurred as the pro-Western government under Ngo Dinh Diem consolidated an iron grip over Vietnam. While Eisenhower poured economic, military, and money for social reform into Vietnam, reform was slow to come. The communists would then invade the South with the Americans supporting the South.

Why did the United States stage a coup in Iran in 1955?

Fears over Soviet influence and Iranians resisting the influence of western oil companies led to a CIA-backed coup to place the Shah in absolute power. This secured Iranian oil for America but angered many Iranians.

What was the Suez Crisis?

When President Nasser of Egypt needed funds for a dam in the southern Nile, both Britain and America offered to provide loans. However, when Nasser heard offers from communists, the U.S. withdrew from this agreement. In reaction, Nasser nationalized the Suez Canal, which was owned by British and French investors. In reaction, both nations, along with Israel, invaded and seized the canal. Eisenhower, who had been kept in the dark, was taken aback and furious with his allies for not consulting him. Therefore, he threatened to cut off their oil supplies if they did not retreat. This was the last time the U.S. was able to leverage its position as an oil nation.

What was OPEC and the impact of nationalism on oil supply?

Many oil-rich nations had been inspired by Nasser's example of keeping oil for themselves; therefore, Iraq, Iran, Saudi Arabia, Venezuela, and Kuwait formed OPEC to restrict western oil companies.

What was Sputnik and its impact?

In 1957, the Soviets launched Sputnik, the first satellite into space, and Sputnik 2 with a dog inside. This hit American self-confidence hard, as Americans had held themselves in high esteem in the scientific field. Additionally, people worried about the Soviets launching ICBMs from space.

What did the advent of Sputnik lead to in the United States?

NASA was founded: with billions of dollars being invested, by 1958 the U.S. had put their own satellite into space. The schooling system was overhauled, with subjects that were no longer considered crucial and outdated replaced with a heavier emphasis on math being implemented. Additionally, the National Defense and Education Act allocated 897 million to loans for the improvement of teaching.

What was the spirit of Camp David and why was it so short-lived?

Khrushchev came to the UN offering disarmament on both sides, as well as offering to leave Berlin. However, at the ensuing Paris summit conference, disagreements and an American U-2 spy plane being shot down led to the resumption of hostilities between the two sides.

Why did Latin America resent the U.S. under Eisenhower?

The U.S. had spent billions rebuilding Europe while neglecting Latin America. Intervention in Latin American affairs: 1954 ousting of a leftist Guatemalan government. U.S. support for bloody dictators who were fighting communism.

Explain the communist revolution in Cuba.

In 1959, Fidel Castro organized a revolution to overthrow the pro-Yankee dictator Fulgencio Batista. Following the toppling of the dictatorship, Castro denounced Yankee imperialism and then began to extort American property in Cuba and pursued extensive land redistribution policies. The U.S. in reaction cut off sugar imports, which led to more confiscations, in turn leading to America breaking diplomatic ties and introducing an embargo around Cuba (strengthened by the Helms-Burton Act). This propelled Cuba into the hands of the Soviets as it became a Soviet base.

Explain the construction of the Berlin Wall.

Constructed by East Germany in 1961, it represented the division that defined post-war Europe as well as the failure of Communism, as it was designed to keep people from leaving.

What was the European Economic Community and the Trade Expansion Act as well as its impact on the future of trade?

Following Western Europe's growth after the implementation of the Marshall Plan, this free trade area was heavily supported by the United States, who through the Trade Expansion Act of 1962 cut tariffs up to 50% to stimulate further trade with the EEC. Therefore, this act began the era of globalization of trade.

What was the Kennedy Doctrine (Flexible Response) and its impact?

The development of an array of military options that could be matched to the seriousness of the situation. Impact: Led to increased spending on conventional military forces. Special Forces (Green Berets) strengthened. A drawback was that force could be used more commonly than diplomatic means.

Explain the situation in Vietnam under Kennedy.

The dictator Ngo Dinh Diem in South Vietnam was facing more and more pushback as his regime became shakier. Kennedy then sent US soldiers to Vietnam to ensure political stability. However, with Diem showing no signs of political reform and clamping down on a Buddhist protest, Kennedy showed no opposition to a coup that would eventually overthrow Diem. However, this political instability and the more potent threat of the Viet Cong led to Kennedy deploying more soldiers.

What was the Alliance for Progress?

The Marshall Plan for Latin America; it sought to quell communist insurgencies through cooperation; however, it would fail.

What was the Bay of Pigs invasion?

Eisenhower's plan, which was inherited by Kennedy, sought to utilize anti-communist guerrillas trained by the CIA to topple Fidel Castro. However, it failed miserably, further propelling Castro into the arms of the Soviets.

How were Kennedy's dealings in Vietnam and the Bay of Pigs representative of the Kennedy Doctrine?

He utilized traditional military because he didn’t view the situation as requiring the usage of the threat of nuclear war. He also implemented special forces.

What was the Cuban Missile Crisis?

Following the Bay of Pigs invasion, American spy planes discovered Soviet nuclear bombs deployed in Cuba. Kennedy, rejecting a bombing plan of Cuba, ordered a naval quarantine of the island and demanded the removal of the bombs. Kennedy also declared any Cuban strike against the U.S. would lead to a strike against Russia. The Russians, who were authorized to fire the nuke if attacked, would back down as Khrushchev agreed to pull the missiles out of Cuba in return for America ending the quarantine, promising not to invade Cuba, and removing missiles from Turkey.

What was the result of the Cuban Missile Crisis?

Khrushchev removed from office for cowardice. Kennedy called for nuclear test ban treaties. Kennedy started to espouse peaceful coexistence with the Soviets. Moscow began to ramp up their military production.

What was the Tonkin Gulf Incident (1964)?

The U.S. and South Vietnam had been cooperating in provocative raids along the North Vietnamese coast. Then two American ships were allegedly fired on; Johnson then called the attack unprovoked and called for a limited retaliatory air raid. This helped lead to the escalation of American involvement.

What was the Tonkin Gulf Resolution?

Using the Gulf of Tonkin incident to spur Congress into action, Johnson was granted a blank check to use further force in Southeast Asia.

What was Operation Rolling Thunder?

Full-scale bombing of North Vietnam.

Explain the situation in Vietnam under Johnson up until the Fulbright hearings.

Following the Gulf of Tonkin Incident and the implementation of Operation Rolling Thunder, United States involvement in Vietnam was massive. By 1965, over 184,000 soldiers were deployed as South Vietnam's own role in their civil war became increasingly marginalized as they continued to suffer from political instability. However, support for South Vietnam remained strong as hawks in Washington called for continued support for America's 'democratic' ally. Johnson then poured over half a million soldiers into Vietnam and 30 billion dollars. Johnson thought with these overwhelming advantages over the North Vietnamese, the United States would win; however, with each American deployed to Vietnam, the resolve of the Vietnamese increased.

How did the rest of the world react to America following its increased involvement in Vietnam?

The bombing of an underdeveloped nation was seen as ridiculous. Many nations expelled American Peace Corps volunteers. France withdrew from NATO.

What was the Six Day War?

Soviet-backed Jordan, Egypt, and Syria lost to Israel, as the Sinai Peninsula, West Bank, Gaza Strip, and Golan Heights came under Israeli control.

How did opposition to the Vietnam war emerge?

Anti-war demonstrations. Draftees fled to Canada.

What were the Fulbright Hearings?

Senator William Fulbright led a series of hearings under the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations and exposed the ridiculous nature of the war, fostering anti-war sentiment among the public.

What was the situation in Vietnam by 1968?

America was trapped in its most unpopular war with people unsure why they were fighting the Vietnamese and opposition continued to grow stronger. However, Johnson still assured the people that victory was in sight.

How did the Vietnam War threaten to violate the constitution?

The CIA was ordered to disobey its charter as a foreign intelligence service and gain intelligence on anti-war protesters.

What was the Tet Offensive and its significance?

North Vietnam attacked the South unexpectedly, and while they were successfully beaten off by the Americans, American public opinion turned heavily against Johnson, as victory through escalation could not be achieved, and the public demanded a quick end to the war.

What was victory through escalation?

This was Johnson’s policy throughout the Vietnam War which attempted to achieve victory by increasing the military presence in Vietnam.

Following his increasing unpopularity regarding Vietnam, what did Johnson do and how was he able to preserve the military status quo?

Due to internal divisions within his party and public backlash over Vietnam, Johnson told the people he would not run in the next presidential election. Through his intent to not run for election again, he was able to preserve the military status quo by keeping the hawks in check and placating the doves. Therefore, the U.S. would remain in Vietnam currently but work out peace with the North.

What was Vietnamization and its impact?

Nixon's policy to Vietnam; he promised to withdraw 540,000 American soldiers from South Vietnam, replacing them with money, weapons, training, and advice to the South Vietnamese army who would take up the burden of the war. This helped quell public hatred of the war.

What was the Nixon Doctrine?

U.S. would honor treaty commitments and provide a nuclear shield, but allies would be responsible for their own conventional defense.

Despite calls to end the war, why did Nixon want to continue it and how did he aim to garner support to do so?

Nixon still believed the war was winnable; therefore he continued military commitments to South Vietnam, especially with bombings. To gain support, he called upon the supposed silent majority, who he hoped would oppose the continued anti-war protests.

What made Vietnam so unpopular?

40,000 killed and 250,000 wounded: America's third most costly foreign war. Unpopular among students, troops in the field, African Americans, and poor whites as it disproportionately targeted them. The foe was unclear. Drug abuse, mutiny, and sabotage all common. My Lai massacre: Killing of an innocent village by American soldiers.

Why did Nixon bomb Cambodia?

Facing increasing backlash over the conduct of the war, Nixon bombed Cambodia in an attempt to cut off the supply routes for the Viet Cong and North Vietnamese army. This was done without congressional approval.

What were the results of the bombing of Cambodia?

Hawks and doves were both becoming increasingly bitter. Disillusionment increased among soldiers and civilians. Congress repealed the blank check given to Johnson and attempted to restrict Nixon. Kent State University protests which saw the death of four students.

How did Congress attempt to reduce the anger of the youth?

Reducing draft calls, shortening the period of draftability, and the 26th amendment which lowered the voting age to 18.