AP Psychology - Unit 5

memory

the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information

encoding

the processing of information into the memory system (ex. by extracting meaning)

storage

retention of encoded information over time

retrieval

process of getting information out of memory storage

sensory memory

immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system

short-term memory

activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten

long-term memory

relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system, including knowledge, skills, and experiences

working memory

newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory

parallel processing

processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain’s natural mode of information processing for many functions; contrasts with the serial processing of many computers and of conscious problem solving

automatic processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information, (space, time, frequency) and of well-learned information (word meanings)

effortful processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

rehearsal

conscious repetition of information, either to maintain it in consciousness or to encode it for storage

spacing effect

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice

serial position effect

tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list

visual encoding

encoding of picture images

acoustic encoding

encoding of sound, especially the sound of words

semantic encoding

encoding of meaning, including the meaning of words

imagery

mental pictures; a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic encoding

mnemonics

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

chunking

organizing items into familiar, measurable units, often automatically

iconic memory

momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second

echoic memory

momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds

long-term potentiation (LTP)

increase in a synapse’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation; believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory

flashbulb memory

clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event

amnesia

loss of memory

implicit memory

retention independent of conscious recollection

explicit memory

memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and “declare”

hippocampus

neural center located in the limbic system; helps process explicit memories for storage

recall

measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test

recognition

measure of memory on which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test

relearning

measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time

priming

activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory

deja vu

cures from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience

mood-congruent memory

tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood

proactive interference

disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information

retroactive interference

disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information

repression

basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feeling, and memories (psychoanalytic theory)

misinformation effect

incorporating misleading information into one’s memory of an event

source amnesia

attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined; along with misinformation effect, at the heart of many false memories

cognition

mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

concept

mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people

prototype

mental image or best example of a category; matching new items to a prototype provides a quick and easy method for sorting items into categories

algorithm

methodological, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem

heuristic

simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; speedier but more error-prone than algorithms

insight

sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem; contrasts with strategy-based solutions

creativity

ability to produce novel and valuable ideas

confirmation bias

tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore contradictory evidence

fixation

inability to see a problem from a new perspective by employing a new mental set

mental set

tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past

functional fixedness

tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions; impediment to problem solving

representative heuristic

judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information

availability heuristic

estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind, we presume such events are common

overconfidence

tendency to be more confident than correct; to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments

belief perseverance

clinging to one’s initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited

intuition

effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning

framing

the way an issue is posed; can affect decisions and judgments

language

our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning

phoneme

smallest distinctive sound unit in language

morpheme

smallest unit that carries meaning in language; may be a word or part of a word (prefix, suffix)

grammar

system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand each other

semantics

set of rules by which we derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences in a given language

syntax

rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences in a given language

babbling stage

beginning at about 4 months, the stage of speech development in which the infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language

one-word stage

the stage in speech development, from age 1 to 2, during which the child speaks mostly in single words

two-word stage

beginning about age 2, the stage in speech development during which a child speaks mostly two-word statements

telegraphic speech

early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram (“go car”) using mostly nouns and verbs

linguistic determination

Whorf’s hypothesis that language determines the way we think

intelligence test

method for assessing an individual’s mental aptitudes and comparing them with those of others, using numerical scores

intelligence

mental quality consisting of the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations

general intelligence (g)

factor that, according to Spearman and others, underlies specific mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test

factor analysis

statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items (factors) on a test; used to identify different dimensions of performance that underlie a person’s total score

savant syndrome

a condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has an exceptional specific skill, such as computation or drawing

emotional intelligence

the ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions

mental age

a measure of intelligence test performance devised by Binet; the chronological age that most typically corresponds to a given level of performance

Stanford-Binet

widely used American revision (by Terman at Stanford University) of Binet’s original intelligence testing

intelligence quotient (IQ)

defined originally as the ratio of mental age (ma) to chronological age (ca) multiplied by 100; on contemporary intelligence tests, the average performance for a given age is assigned a score of 100

achievement tests

tests designed to assess what a person has learned

aptitude tests

tests designed to predict a person’s future performance (capacity to learn)

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)

most widely used intelligence test; contains verbal and performance (nonverbal) subtests

standardization

defining meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested group

normal curve

symmetrical curve that describes the distribution of many physical and physiological attributes

reliability

the extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on two halves of the test or on retesting

validity

the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to

content validity

the extent to which a test samples the behavior that is of interest

predictive validity

the success with which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to predict; assessed by computing the correlation between test scores and criterion behavior

intellectual disability

condition of limited mental ability, indicated by an intelligence score of 70 or below and difficulty in adapting to the demands of life; varies from mild to profound

Down syndrome

condition of intellectual disability and associated physical disorders caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21

stereotype threat

a self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype