Ling 101 UW Madison exam 3 final

Interjection examples

Hey! Wait for me.

Ouch! That hurt.

Wow! That's cool.

Darn! We lost.

Preposition

A word that shows the relationship of a noun or pronoun to another word (on the table)

Cases

nominative (subject, like HE makes bread) accusative (object, like he makes BREAD) genitive (possessor, like HIS bread) dative (indirect object, like he gives HER the bread) locative (he is making bread AT the bakery)

aspects

progressive (i am baking) perfect (i have baked)

bound morpheme

A morpheme that must be "bound" with another morpheme to form a word. Ex: un, ish, es, ed, pre

free morpheme

a morpheme that can stand alone as a word

free morphemes vs bound morphemes

Free morphemes can stand alone (i.e. 'love') whereas bound morphemes must be attached to another morpheme to carry meaning (i.e. 'ed' in 'loved')

derivational affixes

Affixes added to base words that affect the meaning (sign/resign, break/breakable) and/or part of speech (beauty/beautiful)

inflectional affixes

Word endings that serve various grammatical purposes but don't change the meaning of a word and typical don't change parts of speech

morphological rule

what a morpheme does to a word (eg. Make is a verb, add the suffix -er now you have maker which is a noun, so the morphological rule is V to N)

agreement

(typically with a verb) a marking which matches inflectional properties of the subject and/or object

Intransitive vs transitive verbs

-Transitive verbs have direct objects

-Intransitive verbs do not have direct objects

3rd singular agreement

she speak vs she speaks and i speak vs i speaks

negation

changing from affirmative to negative grammar structure (example being gittim becoming gitmedim in Turkish)

modality

indicates the likelihood or possibility of something (words like may, can, or must)

clause types

declarative (statements), interrogative (questions), imperative (instructions), exclamative (exclamations)

compounding

words combined to make new words (this is derivational)

how to test for compound

stress usually on the first syllable (BLACKboard not blackBOARD), inflectional affixes cannot be added to first member of compound (fox hunters not foxes hunters), adverbs cannot modify adjective inside a compound (very blackboard does not work, but very black board does)

reduplication

a syllable structure phonological process that involves the repetition of all of or part of a base. An example of "total reduplication" is anne to anneanne in Turkish. An example of "partial reduplication is takbo to tatakbo, here the "ta" is reduplicated. These can follow rules like malay where reduplicating makes the word plural (anak = child anakanak = children, orang = person orangorang = people)

alternation

new form of word is created by changing a phonetic feature of one segment (anpoka meaning "the pocket' becoming anfoka meaning "of the pocket" the stop becomes a fricative) an "irregular" form in english could be sing to sang (the front vowel becomes a back one)

suppletion

irregular word formation process where a morpheme is replaced with an entirely different form (go becoming went or good becoming better)

affixation

process of forming words by adding affixes to morphemes (fix becoming fixable and then unfixable)

word trees

represent the order in which affixes attach to words and each affix must result in a grammatical word (not unhealth to unhealthy but healthy to unhealthy)

ambiguous trees

unlockable (able to be unlocked) vs unlockable (not lockable)

NP PS rules

NP: (D/NP) (Adj/A) N (PP)

Possessive noun rules

NP N recursion (my brother's friend's dog's sister)

PP PS rules

PP: P NP

Recursion

When a PS can hit a loop (NP goes to N PP which goes to P NP which goes back to N PP)

VP PS rules

VP: (Adv) V (NP/CP) (PP)

S PS rules

S: NP (Aux) VP

CP PS rules

CP: C S (C being if, that, whether)

Argument

an expression which obligatory co-occurs with a word (harry devours, harry devours the apple. sam seemed, sam seemed nervous)

Adjunct

an added expression which is optional and can have multiple adjuncts at a time (he ate the BIG DELICIOUS apple)

Selection

some words select particular arguments, like "seems" takes A, "put" takes NP and PP in that order, and eat can take either NP or nothing

Clause

A grammatical unit that contains both a subject and a verb

Coordination

joining of words or phrases of the same syntactic category through a conjunction (and or but) (bread and butter, days or weeks, tired but happy)

What can be coordinated

S, NP, VP, PP, CP, N, V, A, P, C?, Adv, Aux

PS rules for conjunctions

XP conj XP and X conj X

constituent

a node in a tree (the porch) (on the porch), a syntactic unit

Substitution constituency tests

Pronoun substitution (replace NP with he)

Do-so substitution (replace VP with do-so)

Movement constituency tests

Topicalization ("he met her in the meadow" to "in the meadow he met her")

VP topicalization ("he will run up the hill" to "and run up the hill he will")

Clefting: "it was x that y" ("the boy with brown hair met the girl" to "it was the boy with brown hair that met the girl"

Lexical ambiguity

Bat the thing for baseball and bat the animal

Structural ambiguity

He hit the man with the stick (man holding the stick or being hit with the stick?)

Modifier rule

(hit) the man (with the stick) with the stick modifying the verb or hit (the man with the stick) with the stick modifying the noun

Head of phrase

the V in VP the N in NP the C in CP and the P in PP

head-initial language

SVO language typically

VP: V NP/CP

PP: P NP

NP: N PP

CP: C S

S: Aux VP

head-final language

SOV languages typically

VP: NP/CP V

PP: NP P

NP: PP N

CP: S C

S: VP Aux

mixed languages

can have elements of both head-initial and head-final (example could be follows SVO BUT has PP: NP P and NP: PP N head-initial: "the pollution of the environment is bad" meaning the same as "the environment of the pollution is bad"

How many languages

7168

How many languages will go extinct by 2100

50-90 percent

Where are highest concentrations of endangered languages

Melanesia, sub-sahara africa, and south america

Macrolanguages

88 percent of the world's population speaks on of the largest 200 languages

Factors of endangered languages

1. Small number of speakers/decrease in population

2. Decreasing number of children learning the language

3. Decreasing number of fluent speakers

4. Decreasing domains of usage

Reasons for language loss

1. Genocide (tasmania) and natural disaster

2. Colonialism and marginalization

3. Overt repression (native American schools)

language revitalization

Attempts by linguists and activists to preserve or revive languages with few native speakers that appear to be on the verge of extinction through education and policy hebrew Maori and Irish

How distant are groups of languages

5000 years

Is Latin a language that went extinct

No, Latin simply evolved overtime into other languages like french and italian

Language discrimination and equal grammar

People discriminate against language for being lower or "dumb" but all grammars are equal and are capable of expressing the same set of ideas, also all grammars change overtime