History final review

study guys!!!

Neolithic Revolution:

The neolithic revolution was the beginning of agriculture in early humans as opposed to hunting and gathering. It is commonly regarded as the most impactful movement in history, as it led to early civilizations developing.

River valley civilizations: 

Indus River Valley Civilization (IRVC)  (2500 BCE-1500 BCE)

1\. In modern day Pakistan

2\. Two major cities: Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro

3\. Developed on banks of Indus River and also benefited from monsoon rains

4\. Few details known because  we do not know how to translate its writing

irrigation:

Sumerian city-states built complex irrigation systems

Mesopotamia:

\-Region called Mesopotamia “between the rivers” because it is the land between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers

\-a part of the Fertile Crescent

\-Developed cuneiform

\-first empire created in Mesopotamia by Sargon of Akkad

\- five characteristics of society:

1\. Advanced cities

2\. Complex institutions (ex: organized governments and religion)

3\. Specialized workers (people doing more than just farming)

4\. Record keeping (ex: writing)

5\. Advanced technology

**Rise of Sumerian city-states**

Rise of Sumerian City-States

1\. Three environmental challenges

a. Unpredictable flooding with periods of little rain

b. No natural barriers to protect from invaders

c. Limited natural resources

2\. Organized governments developed to address these problems

a. Built complex irrigation systems and city walls

b. Traded with other regions

\*city-state: political organization based on the authority of a single, large city that controls outlying (surrounding) territories

Sumerian city-states Religions/developments

1\. Religion

a. Polytheistic (worship many gods)

b. Gods needed to be pleased through sacrifices and construction of ziggurats (temples)

2\. Social classes (AKA hierarchy)

a. Rulers and priests at top

b. Wealthy landowners and merchants next

c. Artisans and farmers

d. Enslaved people at bottom

3\. Cuneiform (“wedged-shaped”) 

a. First writing system developed in Mesopotamia c. 3000 BCE

b. Originally developed to keep track of trade and property

c. Specialized workers called scribes trained from a young age for this job

d. Used a stylus to press pictographs (symbols that represented words or phrases) into soft clay that dried into hard tablets

e. Over time, used by numerous Mesopotamian civilizations

Hammurabi:

A ruler of the Babylonian Empire which had conquered most of Mesopotamia c. 2000 BCE

Hammurabi’s Code

one of the first times laws were codified (written down for all to see)

Nile River:

a. Longest river in the world

b. Life in Egypt centered around it

c. Annual flooding provided both water and silt (fine-grained soil, often deposited on riverbanks during floods)

Alexander the Great:

1\. Philip II’s son who took over at the age of 20 in 336 BCE

2\. Solidifies his power by responding brutally to a rebellion by

Greek city-state Thebes, killing and enslaving thousands

3\. Quickly established huge empire by defeating Persians

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1\. Alexander admired Greek culture and often left Greeks behind to rule lands he conquered

2\. Spread Hellenistic\* culture throughout the former Persian Empire (“Hellenistic” primarily refers to Greek culture but also includes influences of Egypt, Persia, and India/South Asia)

3\. When Alexander dies of fever in 323 BCE, empire is divided up among five of his generals

Hellenistic Culture:

\-Alexander the great spread Hellenistic\* culture throughout the former Persian Empire (“Hellenistic” primarily refers to Greek culture but also includes influences of Egypt, Persia, and India/South Asia)

Hellenistic Culture Influenced

\-Greek Mythology/Drama

\-Art and Architecture

\-History

\-Philosophy/Government 

\-Science and Math

Basic Beliefs of Judaism

1\. Monotheistic (belief in one god)

2\. Holiest text is the Torah (first five books of the Bible)

3\. Jews believe that they have a special covenant (binding agreement) with God

a. God promised to love and protect them

b. They promised to love God and follow God’s laws

Punic Wars

Three wars fought between Rome and Carthage (3rd and 2nd century bc)

Rome won all three wars and they emerged as the greatest military power in the Mediterranean. 

Carthage leaders:Hamilcar Barca, Hasdrubal and Hannibal.

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Rome leaders: Scipio Africanus, Scipio Aemilianus.

Punic Wars

* Three wars fought between Rome and Carthage (3rd and 2nd century bc)
* Rome won all three wars and they emerged as the greatest military power in the Mediterranean. 
* Carthage leaders:Hamilcar Barca, Hasdrubal and Hannibal.
* Rome leaders: Scipio Africanus, Scipio Aemilianus.
* The first war was brought on by a clash between Roman and Carthaginian forces over the city of Messina, Sicily.(264–241 bc)
* Carthage sued for peace; Carthage was forced to give Spain and all Mediterranean islands, forced to pay a large indemnity and forfeit any independence in foreign policy
* Carthage wanted peace but was forced to fight for survival/ siege of Carthage lasted two years without result
* Lasting Impacts

1. Carthage completely destroyed at end of third war

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2. Rome has no remaining rival to its dominance over the Mediterranean and surrounding lands

**Christianity:**

1\. Originally a branch of Judaism but believed in the divinity of Jesus

2. As it grew and started to convert Gentiles (non-Jews) Romans saw it a threat because Christians did not worship other gods or the emperor

3. Though some Christians were put to death, Romans generally left Christians alone until c. 200 CE

4\. c. 250 CE, emperor ordered all citizens to worship Roman gods so Christians who refused were executed, becoming martyrs

Rise of Christianity

a. 313 CE, Emperor Constantine (who allegedly converts to Christianity late in life) issued an order that allows Romans freedom to follow whatever religion they want

b. As Christianity became more

powerful, Christians begin to persecute those that disagree with them (Jews, pagans, and other Christians)

c. 391 CE, Emperor Theodosius

outlawed all pagan religions

**Fall of  the Western Roman Empire** 

A. End of Pax Romana  

1. After 180 CE, much fighting within the empire and many emperors ruled for only a short time 

2\. Empire often was split into Western and Eastern empire (or even smaller parts)

3\. Tribes from Northern Europe begin to threaten empire 

4\. Economy doing poorly and taxes going up 

**Constantine’s Shift East**

1\. c. 320 CE,  moved capital from Rome to Constantinople to be closer to the empire’s wealthiest provinces

2\. After his death, descendents fight over the empire 

3\. by 400 CE, the Roman Empire is permanently split into the Western Roman Empire and the Eastern Roman Empire (AKA the Byzantine Empire)

Fall of West was gradual as barbarians tribes invaded and/or migrated over time

2\. Some emperors gave them land or paid them to be in the Roman army

3\. 410 CE, Rome sacked by King Alaric  of the Visigoths

4\. 476 CE, Odoacer, a Roman soldier who was probably German, overthrew the last Roman emperor in West

**Hinduism:**

1\. Roots in the Vedas (sacred text) of the Aryans

2\. Three main gods: Brahma the Creator, Vishnu the Preserver, and Shiva the Destroyer plus countless other gods also worshiped

3\. Aryan social classes evolves into thousands of castes\* based on profession and

ethnic group

Major Beliefs of Hinduism

1. Worship many gods but believe they are all avatars\* of one universal spirit called Brahman

2. Goal is to achieve moksha (a perfect understanding of all things) and joining your atman (individual soul) with Brahman

\*an avatar is an incarnation or form of a deity

Path to Moksha

a. Normally not achieved in one lifetime

b. Reincarnation and karma 

i. good karma is achieved when you follow your dharma (moral and religious duties that are expected of a person according to their caste)

ii. if you do your dharma, you receive good karma and are reincarnated in a higher caste (opposite also true)

iii. after many rebirths, may finally achieve moksha 

Buddhism

1\.  Siddhartha Gautama AKA the Buddha (c. 500 BCE)

a. Born Hindu prince inIndia/Nepal c. 500 BCE

   b. Left his riches to search forthe meaning of  life

c. Achieved enlightenment while meditating under a tree

2\. Four Noble Truths of Buddhism

   a. All life is suffering

   b. Suffering is caused by the desire for things

   c. The way to eliminate suffering is to eliminate desire

   d. To overcome desire, follow the Eightfold Path 

3\. The Eightfold Path

   a. right views  e. right livelihood (or job)

   b. right intentions  f. right effort

   c. right speech  g. right mindfulness

   d. right conduct  h. right meditation

4\. Buddha believed in karma/reincarnation but not caste system

5\. Goal is to reach nirvana (the release from pain and suffering achieved after enlightenment)

**Confucianism**

1\. Most influential East Asian philosopher

2\. As Zhou Dynasty fell, sought ways to restore peace and harmony to China

3\. Focused on ethics and politics, not religion 

4\. After his death, teachings were collected in the *Analects*

5\. Golden Rule:  "Do not impose on others what you do not wish for yourself."

6\. Stressed filial piety (respect shown by children for their parents and elders)

7\. Five Relationships of Confucianism

a. Ruler to subject

b. Father to son

c. Husband to wife

d. Older brother to younger brother

e. Elder to younger 

8\. Superior was obligated to look after inferior while inferior owed obedience and respect to superior

**Legalism:**

1\. Founded by Han Feizi c. 200 BCE

2\. Core beliefs

a. people naturally evil/selfish

b. need strong ruler who demanded absolute obedience

c. laws should be strict with harsh punishments and rewards

\-There was a weak government with many warring states, the people wanted a more controlled government which led to legalism

\-Legalism is based on the viewpoint that in order for a ruler to maintain order in society, people must obey a set of strict laws and those in authority (the rulers and government officials). Legalist philosophers thus created a system of punishment and reward for certain behaviors.

\-famous achievement is the Great Wall of China

\-fell out during late Qin dynasty and early Han dynasty

**Daoism:**

1\. Founded by Laozi (“Old Master”) c. 500 BCE (if he existed)

2\. Simplicity, balance and a oneness with nature emphasized

3\. Yin and yang symbolizes this balance

a. Yin was cold, dark, female, and submissive

b. Yang was warm, light, male, and aggressive

c. to be at peace, needed a balance of both

4\. Teachings found in *Dao De Jing* (*Tao Te Ching*)

5\. The goal of life for a Daoist is to cultivate a mystical relationship

6\. All types of Daoism have in common the quest for harmony with the universe

7\. They emphasize the individual’s and the group’s need for unity through mysticism, magic, and ceremony

8\. an array of gods who are administrators of the universe, of which they are a part

9\. Daoist are able to strengthen the life force within themselves

Pax Mongolica:

(AKA Mongol Peace): Mongols undisputed control of trade routes like Silk Roads allow trade and cultural diffusion to thrive

Silk Roads:

Main export was silk so trade routes between China and Europe known as the Silk Roads

Muhammad (570 to 632 CE)

1\. Founder of Islam who was also a military and political leader

2\. Muslims believe he was greatest prophet of Allah (God) 

3\. Led Muslim armies who conquered much of the surrounding territory

* Muhammad that Allah had chosen him as a prophet. Throughout his life, Muhammad continued to receive messages that he believed came from God.
* Many people in Muhammad’s hometown of __Mecca__ disliked the new religion because of that belief. To avoid their hostility, Muhammad encouraged his followers to move to the nearby city of Medina. Muhammad’s journey to Medina ended on September 24, 622, which is considered the starting point of Islamic history.

Islam (pt. 1)

1\. Ruler was called a caliph (successor) who was both a religious and political/military leader

2\. Conquered people were encouraged to convert but often Jews and Christians (“People of the Book”) were tolerated and treated with some respect

* First four leaders after Muhammad called the “rightly guided” caliphs because they were seen as loyal to Qu’ran and Muhammad’s teachings


3. In 610 an angel told Muhammad that Allah had chosen him as a prophet. Throughout his life, Muhammad continued to receive messages that he believed came from God

Umayyad Caliphate (661 to 750)

1\. Took over after last “rightly guided” caliph murdered in struggle for power

2\. Moved capital to Damascus in Syria

3\. Many Muslims felt they were too concerned with wealth and power and not true to Muhammad’s/Qu’ran’s teachings

Islam (pt. 2)

\-there is only one God

\-During the 600s and 700s, Islam spread far beyond Arabia, from the western Mediterranean region to Central Asia. Holy wars called jihads were fought to gain political control over societies so that they could be run using Islamic principles.

1\. Monotheistic and worship the same God as Judaism and Christianity

2\. Believe in the Jewish prophets and that Jesus was a prophet but not divine

3\. The Qu’ran (Koran) is the holiest book 

in Islam and contains the divine messages Muhammad received from the angel Gabriel

4. Mecca in modern day Saudi Arabia is their holiest city

5. Muslim places of worship are called mosques

\-ʿId al-Fitr marks the end of Ramadan. Families share special meals together, gifts are exchanged, and children wear new clothes.

\- ʿId al-Adha marks the end of the pilgrimage to Mecca. It is a time for prayer, visiting with friends and family, and giving gifts. Many families sacrifice an animal and share the meat with family, friends, and the poor.

Five Pillars of Islam

\-Testimony of Faith: “There is no god but Allah and Muhammad is his Prophet”

\-Pray towards Mecca five times a day

\-Give charity to the poor

\-Fast during the month of Ramadan

\-Make a hajj (pilgrimage or holy journey) to Mecca at least once in your lifetime

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\-Muslims believe that Allah created the universe and that humans must submit to his will.

Sunni vs Shia:

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House of Wisdom (Baghdad):

-a dedicated space for scholarship made a special effort to recruit famous scholars to come to the House of Wisdom.

\-Muslims, Christians, and Jews all collaborated and worked peacefully there (established during Abbasid Caliphate/Golden Age of Islam)

Ghana:

Empire of Ghana (c. 800 to 1100 CE)

1\. Use of camels made trans-Saharan 

trade easier by 200 CE

2\. Ghana become major power by

controlling/taxing gold-salt trade (gold from West Africa, salt from the Sahara)

3\. Rulers and upper class convert to 

Islam but most continue to follow animism\*

4\. Invasions by Muslims from the north 

and shifting trade routes weaken Ghana

\*the belief that spirits are present in animals, plants, and other natural objects

Mali:

Empire of Mali (1235 to 1400s)

1\. As Ghana weakened, Mali emerged as new power and also controlled gold-salt trade along with trade of enslaved people

2\. Sundiata Keita (1235-1255) AKA “The Lion King”

a. considered the first emperor of Mali 

b. came to power by overthrowing an unpopular leader 

c. according to legend, his use of cavalry (soldiers on horses) provided advantage over infantry (foot soldiers)

d. appointed skilled administrators to help him rule

Songhai:

1\. Songhai replaced Mali; also controlled gold-salt (and enslaved person) trade 

2. Sunni Ali (1464 to 1492) created Songhai empire with army of war canoes and riders on horseback

3\. Askia Muhammad (1493 to 1538) overthrew Sunni Ali’s son 

because he was not a devout enough Muslim

4. Empire falls to Moroccans from North Africa armed with gunpowder and cannons (1591)

Timbuktu:

center of Muslim Learning

Mansa Musa: (1312-1332)

a. Sundiata’s grandnephew?

b. was strong leader who expanded empire

c. divided empire into provinces to help rule more efficiently

d. was Muslim so took hajj to Mecca c. 1325

e. made city of Timbuktu a center of Muslim learning

Eastern Roman Empire (pt. 1)

1\. From Fall of Rome to start of Renaissance (c. 500-1500)

2\. AKA Medieval Period

1\. Germanic tribes convert to Christianity and establish kingdoms

2\. Literacy low and much of the knowledge of Greece and Rome is lost __so period sometimes called Dark Ages__

* people ruled by written law

2\. German warriors loyal to chief who provided “food, weapons, and treasure” 

3\. People loyal only to local ruler so hard to establish large kingdoms

1\. c. 500, Frankish ruler Clovis converted to Christianity after he prays to Christian God before battle he won

2\. Catholic Church supported him as he conquered other Germanic tribes

**E. Spread of Christianity**

1\. Spreads through conquests (ex: the Franks) and missionaries

2\. Monasteries (religious communities of monks) and convents (religious communities of nuns) established to provide religious guidance to people

3\. c. 520, a monk named Benedict and a nun named Scholastica wrote rules for monasteries and convents

4\. c. 590, Pope Gregory I (AKA the Great) increased the power of the Church and the authority of the pope

Eastern Roman Empire (pt. 1)

F. Frankish Power Increases 

1. By 511, control much of  Western Europe

2. Charles Martel (the Hammer)

a. c. 700, a government official who has more power than king

b. Defeated Muslim invaders from Spain

at the Battle of Tours (732)

3. Pepin the Short

a. Son of Charles Martel

b. Defeated pope’s enemies in Italy in exchange for having  pope name him “king by the grace of God” in 751

c. Beginning of Carolingian Dynasty which lasts until 987

Justinian I

\-the most famous emperor of the Byzantine or Eastern Roman Empire

\-known as Justinian the Great

\-he is known today chiefly for his reform and codification of law

\-adopted by his uncle Emperor Justin I and was educated in Constantinople 

\-after his uncle died he became emperor

\-Code of Justinian: four books

\- his armies drove the Ostrogoths out of Italy and the Vandals out of northern Africa 

\-restoring their lands to the empire

\-he was a great builder (erected forts, aqueducts and churches 

\-tried to end the disputes between the eastern and western branches of the Christian church

\- Constructed impressive churches like the Hagia Sophia because he wanted a strong bond between his gov’t and religion

\-Wife Theodora helped him rule and succeed

Fall of Eastern Roman Empire

1\. After Justinian, gradually grew smaller and weaker

2\. Wars with Sassanid Empire contributed to decline

3\. 1453, Constantinople fell to Ottomans (more later…)

Eastern Orthodox Church:

D. Orthodox Church

1\. Split from Roman Catholic Church in 1054 because of disputes over doctrine (official teachings or beliefs of a religion)

2\. Divided into many branches: Russian Orthodox, Greek Orthodox, Serbian Orthodox, etc.

3\. Basic beliefs similar to Catholics but priests can marry and they do not accept authority of pope

feudal system

* a political system in which nobles are granted the use of land that legally belongs to their king, in exchange for their loyalty, military service, and protection of the people who live on the land
* System where nobles are granted use of land by ruler in exchange for loyalty and military service

2\. People relied on local rulers to protect them because kings could not

3\. A king would make a lord his vassal and give him land called a fief

4\. Vassals would pledge loyalty to king and provide military support

5\. Knights were vassals to lords

Manorialism/the manor system:

1\. Manor defined: a lord’s estate in feudal Europe

2. Manors were largely self-sufficient

3. Often included a church

4\. Most labor done by serfs (medieval peasants legally bound to live on a lord’s estate) in exchange for protection

5. Life was tough for serfs/peasants but they believed that “God determined a person’s place in society”

medieval art:

Northern artists come to Italy to study

2\. Northern artists tend to focus more on realism

3\. French and English monarchs are powerful patrons of the arts

Key Artists 

1\. German Albrecht Dürer known for woodcuts and engravings (but painted too) 

2\. Hans Holbein was German but most famous for portraits of English royals like Henry VIII (right)

3\. Region of Flanders became center of art through patronage of wealthy merchants

a. Jan van Eyck mastered oil-based paints

b. Pieter Bruegel often focused on scenes from peasant life

The Conflicts

The Crusades (1096 to c. 1300)

1\. Reasons for the Crusades (Western European Perspective)

a. Wanted to take Holy Land (Israel/Palestine) from

Muslims (Seljuk Turks) and protect Christian pilgrims

b. Eastern Roman emperor asked for help defending

Constantinople

c. Some saw opportunity to get European nobles and 

knights to fight others instead of each other

d. 1095, Pope Urban II called for a Crusade, claiming it was God’s will 

Impact of Crusades

a. Encouraged more exploration

b. Europeans gained knowledge from the Muslims about 

science and medicine 

c. Europeans increased trade with Asia

d. Crusaders slaughter Muslim, Jews, and even other Christian civilians to lasting bad relations

e. Ultimately weakened Eastern Roman Empire

Renaissance (pt. 1)

Origins in Northern Italy

1. Renaissance (rebirth) was revival of art and learning and of Greek and Roman culture

2. Began in northern Italian city-states where wealthy merchants have resources to support the arts

3. Italians inspired by Roman ruins and Latin works that had been preserved in monasteries and/or brought by Byzantines who fled the Ottomans

2. Reflected in literature and art (ex: paintings no longer just religious)

* The popes of the Roman Catholic Church controlled the religious life. Both of these institutions began to lose power by the 1300s. Individual European nations also grew stronger. People started writing in their own languages instead of Latin (the language of the Catholic church). People felt freer to think in new ways.

. Patrons

1. Church leaders, merchants, and wealthy families support artists as patrons

2. Patronage was a way to show off wealth, power, and prestige

Renaissance (pt. 2)

C. Innovations in Art

1. Artists move beyond just religious imagery and use Greek and Roman history and legends and regular people as subjects

2. Focus on realism and the details of the human body

3. Perspective is new technique that provides illusion of three dimensions in two dimensional paintings (see below)

D. Key Artists and Their Works

1\. Donatello made sculptures more realistic and natural looking (see his version of David on right)

2. Leonardo da Vinci: known for Mona Lisa, The Last Supper, and his notebooks full of unbuilt inventions

3. Michelangelo sculpted David in classic Greek style and painted ceiling of Sistine Chapel for the pope

4. Raphael’s School of Athens shows respect for classic Greek learning and philosophy (see next slide)

Renaissance (pt. 3)

E. Writers of Italian Renaissance

1\. Many start to write in the vernacular (everyday language) instead of Latin

2. Francesco Petrarch (pictured on right) is called “father of Renaissance humanism” and wrote beautiful sonnets (14 line poems that follow a special structure/rhyme scheme)

3. Giovanni Boccaccio’s The Decameron is a series of stories about a group of people hiding from the plague

4. Niccolò Machiavelli’s The Prince describes how to be an effective ruler (ML)

* Johannes Gutenberg invented the printing press. This allowed people to make many

copies of written works. Printed books soon spread the ideas of the Renaissance all over Europe.

* One of the first thinkers to have his writings printed was Desiderius Erasmus of Rotterdam (now in the Netherlands). Erasmus was a religious scholar, but he was interested in humanism
* Nicolaus Copernicus, who was born in Poland, was one of the greatest astronomers of the Renaissance. He showed that Earth revolves around the Sun

Humanism

Study of Greco-Roman philosophy led to humanism which focused on human potential and achievements

*The Prince:*

Niccolò Machiavelli’s The Prince describes how to be an effective ruler

printing press:

Johannes Gutenberg invented the printing press. This allowed people to make many copies of written works. Printed books soon spread the ideas of the Renaissance all over Europe (allowed copies of the Bible to be translated and available to the public)

**Reformation:**

religious reform movement that swept through Europe during the renaissance that resulted from Protestantism, which was founded by Martin Luther, as opposition to the way the Church and Christianity was currently operating/ruling.

Martin Luther:

\-a German monk/professor

\-posted his 95 Theses (arguments) on the door of a church (sparked Reformation)

\-His major complaints were corruption and the sale of indulgences 

\- Luther and Lutherans believed

     -Salvation can only be won by faith in God’s forgiveness

     -All religious teachings should be based on Bible so rejected authority of pope and Church tradition

     -No need for priests to interpret Bible 

95 Theses:

Martin Luther posted 95 complaints on a Church door with everything he felt should be changed about the Church (sparked Reformation)

Henry VIII:

\-splits from Catholic Church so he can end his marriage and remarry

\-wanted to increase his own power and seize the land and wealth of the Church

\-Executed many who opposed him (including his personal advisor St. Thomas More) for “treason”

John Calvin:

expanded on Luther’s ideas and believed in predestination

**Catholic Reformation (AKA Counter Reformation):**

A. Movement to reform the Catholic Church in response to Reformation

B. St. Ignatius of Loyola

a. 1540, founded the Society of Jesus (the Jesuits)

b. Focused on Catholic education by founding schools, the conversion of non-Christians, and stopping the spread of Protestantism

Council of Trent (1545-1563)

1. Meeting of Catholic leaders called by Pope Paul III 

2. Agreed to several doctrines

a. Church’s interpretation of Bible was final 

b. Salvation gained through faith and good works, not faith alone

c. Church’s traditions/teachings as important as Bible for guiding Christians

d. Placed limits on how indulgences could be sold

3\. Pope Paul IV created list of offensive books and many were burnt in bonfires

Encounter/Age of Exploration (pt. 1)

Causes (Motivation for Western Europeans)

1\. Crusades introduced Europe to Asian products but Muslims controlled land routes 

2\. Italians merchants who control trade with Muslims charge a lot

3\. Renaissance encouraged people to explore

4\. Desire to convert people to Christianity

5\. Find Christian allies for possible conflict with Muslims

6\. Technological Advances: a. Sturdy ships called caravels with triangular sails allowed ships to sail into wind, Astrolabe (developed by Muslims) and magnetic compass (developed by Chinese) allowed sailors to use stars to determine location in open sea

Early Explorers from Portugal

1\. Led by Prince Henry the Navigator (1394-1460), Portuguese government supported exploration

2\. Began by establishing trading posts in Africa

3\. 1488, Bartolomeu Dias sailed around southern tip of Africa but turned back 

4\. 1497, Vasco da Gama reached India, establishing sea route from Europe to Asia 

Encounter/Age of Exploration (pt. 2)

C. Early Spanish Expeditions

1\. 1492, Christopher Columbus “discovered” America trying to find a trade route to Asia

2\. 1494, Treaty of Tordesillas divided the world between Portugal and Spain (pope helped negotiate)

a. Spain got most of Americas

b. Portugal got Asia + Africa

3\. 1521, Ferdinand Magellan led an expedition that was first to circumnavigate (sail around) the world (he died in Philippines)

A. Slavery

1\. Because enslaving of NAs not practical Europeans begin importing African enslaved people in 1500s

2\. By end of slave trade c. 1870, about 10 million Africans imported to Americas

Encounter/Age of Exploration (pt. 3)

\-The Africans would enslave other Africans from neighboring tribes (prisoners of war, criminals,)

\-The enslaved people were marched to the beaches of West Africa where the ships were

\- Around 15-20% of these enslaved people died on the journey along the middle passage

\-Middle passage referred to a typical 9-12 week journey

\- unsanitary conditions on the ships

\-people would try to throw themselves overboard, which is why the captains put nets or people would stop eating

\-Fixed melancholy:a condition were captives felt so dispirited that they simply stared into space

B. Columbian Exchange/Triangular Trade 

2\. crops native to Americas like corn and potatoes become key part of European farming while horses, cattle, sheep and pigs introduced to Americas

Aztec Empire (pt. 1):

1\. Began as nomads who were hired as soldiers

2. By early 1500s, controlled 80,000 square miles and 5-15 million people

3. Maintained control by letting local rulers govern but collecting tribute

4. Resistance or failure to pay tribute leads to destruction

5. Emperor rules with absolute power

Tenochtitlán (capital of empire) 

a. By c. 1500, 200,000-400,000 people

b. Built on island connected to mainland by three causeways (raised roads)

c. Food grown on chinampas (floating gardens)

d. Believed human sacrifice necessary so needed steady supply of prisoners of war and tribute

e. Early 1500s, conquered provinces tired of providing tribute and sacrifices

* 9 months later and sacked Tenochtitlan, denying the people food and water

Aztec Empire (pt. 2):

They fell to Spanish conquistador Hernan Cortes

* The Spanish conquistadors had superior weapons and the people of the surrounding areas were fighting with the Spanish against the Aztecs (because they were using the people for human sacrifice)
* The Aztecs also decreased in numbers due to the diseases that the Spanish brought 
* Montezuma thought Cortes could have been a god but then realized he wasn’t. Cortes captured Montezuma and forced him to submit. They killed Montezuma a couple months later and they escaped. The Spanish came back

Inca Empire (pt. 1):

1\. By 1200, established small kingdom in a fertile valley in Andes Mountains near west coast of South America

2\. Thought king descended from sun god

3\. c. 1438, Pachacuti created empire by conquering surrounding lands

4\. By 1500, empire includes about 16 million people

5\. Would offer to allow local rulers to stay in power in exchange for loyalty

Incas controlled empire by:

a. dividing territory into smaller units

b. building elaborate road system to tie empire together (see map)

c. imposing a single official language

d. creating schools to teach Incan ways

e. building cities in conquered lands to show power of central government

f. controlling the economy

g. having conquered people provide labor as tribute (called mita)

Inca Record-Keeping

a. no system of writing

b. did have sophisticated system of **record keeping** that recorded numerical data using knotted strings called quipu

inca empire (pt. 2)

a. polytheistic with most gods associated with nature (ex: moon, thunder)

b. worship of sun god helped enforce power of the ruler who was thought to be his descendent

Inca Cities and Temples

a. Temple of Sun in Cuzco

i. most sacred Inca shrine

ii. originally covered in gold which Incas called “sweat of the sun”

b. Machu Picchu (see picture)

i. popular site to visit today

ii. historians unsure of its purpose

10\. Problems in the Empire

a. c. 1520s, Inca ruler died (probably smallpox)

b. civil war between his sons weakened empire

Fall of the Incas

Fell to Francisco Pizzaro who conquered the Incas with 200 men and foreign diseases were spread to the Incas

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> “A decade later, the Incas, who controlled the largest empire in pre-Columbian America, plagued by
>
> civil war and decimated by smallpox, faced Spanish conquistador Francisco Pizarro. The Incas
>
> suffered a similar fate, as Pizarro conquered the Incan Empire, claiming the Incan lands for Spain.”