Conscience Theories

What is Aquinas’ theory of the conscience based on?

• Conscience is part of natural law ethics.

• Humans are designed by God to use reason to follow His moral law (telos).

• Telos: Natural end or purpose of a thing; for humans, achieving moral good.

Role of reason in Aquinas’ theory

• God gave humans reason (ratio).

• Synderesis: Ability of reason to know primary precepts (general moral rules).

• Conscientia: Applying primary precepts to specific situations → forming secondary precepts (specific moral guidance).

Synderesis rule

Humans have an innate tendency to do good and avoid evil.

Conscience

• Conscience = synderesis + conscientia.

• It is the means by which humans achieve their telos.

Guilt

• Our reason tells us which actions are good/bad.

• Feeling of guilt occurs when we violate moral law.

• Aquinas: conscience “witnesses, binds, and torments” us.

Vincible & Invincible Ignorance

• Invincible ignorance: Could not have known better → no guilt.

• Vincible ignorance: Could/should have known better → guilt and responsibility.

Counterargument: Telos is unscientific

• Modern science (e.g., Bacon, Carroll) finds no evidence for purpose in the universe.

• Human behaviour explained by evolutionary instincts (e.g., empathy in herd species).

• Evaluation: Aquinas’ telos is unnecessary; scientific explanations are simpler (Ockham’s razor).

Cross-cultural moral variation

• Aquinas expects universal moral knowledge via reason → but morality differs across cultures (e.g., euthanasia laws).

• Critics (Fletcher, Freud, Skinner): culture & social conditioning explain morality better.

• Aquinas’ response: core moral principles are universal (killing, reproduction, education).

• Evaluation: Evolutionary psychology and social necessity provide better explanations.

Freud’s view of the conscience

• Conscience = result of social conditioning; no God involved.

• It arises from interaction of Id, Ego, and Superego.

The Id

Unconscious instincts → immediate desires and drives (e.g., food, sex).

The Ego

Conscious, self-aware part → decision-making and negotiation between Id and Superego.

The Superego

• Memory of social rules → moral guidance conditioned by authority figures during childhood.

• Enforces guilt when social rules are broken.

Example: Conscience in action

• Id: desire to eat.

• Ego: aware of desire.

• Superego: tells you “class is in session → cannot eat”.

• Choice → obey Superego → frustration, or give in → guilt.

Psycho-sexual development & conscience

• Oral stage: explore world via mouth.

• Anal stage: control toilet habits → self-discipline.

• Phallic stage: Oedipus/Electra complex.

• Latency stage: 6-puberty → gender roles, control of desires.

• Genital stage: mature sexuality → fully developed conscience (ego controls Id with Superego).

Criticism: Unscientific

• Freud studied small, unrepresentative samples.

• Popper: Theories are “unfalsifiable” → not true science.

Defense/Evaluation

• Piaget: Supported the idea that conscience arises from socialisation.

• Contemporary psychology: supports unconscious influence on desires.

• Freud’s central claim (conscience = social conditioning) is scientifically plausible.

Source of morality

• Aquinas: God → reason → conscience.

• Freud: social conditioning + development → conscience.

Role of reason vs socialisation

• Aquinas: reason discovers moral law (primary precepts).

• Freud: conscience is learned → culture, parents, society.

Cross-cultural moral variation

• Aquinas predicts universality → contradicted by cultural differences.

• Freud explains variation → morality depends on culture and socialisation.

• Evaluation: Freud’s approach aligns better with observable evidence.

Supernatural vs naturalistic explanations

• Aquinas: moral compass requires God + telos → unnecessary hypothesis.

• Freud: no supernatural → psychology & socialisation suffice.

• Evaluation: Freud provides a simpler, scientifically grounded explanation.

Evolutionary explanation (modern support)

• Moral sense arises from evolutionary advantage → empathy, cooperation, social stability.

• Supports Freud, weakens Aquinas’ supernatural telos.

Overall evaluation - Aquinas

Aquinas: Conscience tied to God and natural law, provides a moral framework but lacks empirical support; fails with cross-cultural variation.

Overall evaluation - Freud

Freud: Conscience explained scientifically; cultural/social/environmental factors account for moral behaviour; more testable and observable.

Overall Conclusion

Freud’s theory is stronger scientifically; Aquinas reflects medieval theological views rather than universal morality.