Section One: Research methods (combined)

self-report

A: A method of data collection in which participants provide information about themselves, typically through questionnaires or interviews.

questionnaire

A: A written self-report technique where participants respond to a series of questions, which can be open or closed.

interview

A spoken self-report technique involving a researcher asking questions to participants, either face-to-face or remotely.

open question

A: A question that allows participants to respond in their own words, producing qualitative data.

closed question

A: A question that provides limited, predefined response options, producing quantitative data.

Likert scale

A: A scale used in questionnaires to measure the degree of agreement or disagreement with a statement, typically ranging from "strongly agree" to "strongly disagree.

rating scale

A: A type of closed question where participants rate something on a numerical scale (e.g. 1–10).

structured interview

A: An interview where all participants are asked the same pre-determined questions in the same order.

semi-structured interview

A: An interview that uses a mix of pre-set questions and follow-up questions based on the participant’s responses.

unstructured interview

A: An interview with no fixed questions; it is conversational and flexible, guided by the participant’s responses.

pilot study

A: A small-scale trial run of a questionnaire or interview to check clarity, reliability, and functionality before the main study.

standardised instructions

A: Ensuring all participants receive the same instructions in order to reduce variation in responses.

internal validity in self-report

A: The extent to which a self-report method accurately measures what it intends to measure (e.g. honesty, attitudes).

reliability in self-report

A: The consistency of the self-report method, especially over time or between different raters.

subjectivity

A: When data is influenced by personal feelings or opinions, a risk in open questions and unstructured interviews.

objectivity

A: When data is measured without bias or interpretation, often associated with closed questions and structured interviews.

demand characteristics

A: When participants guess the aim of the study and alter their responses, which may bias the results.

social desirability bias

A: When participants answer in a way that they think is socially acceptable or favourable, rather than truthful.

What is response bias

A: A general tendency to respond in a particular way regardless of the actual content, such as always choosing "agree."

acquiescence bias

A: A type of response bias where participants tend to agree with all questions or statements.

leading question

A: A question that suggests or prompts a particular answer, potentially affecting the validity of results.

filler question

A: A question included to distract from the main aim of the questionnaire or to reduce demand characteristics.

ethical issues in self-report

A: Includes confidentiality, informed consent, and psychological harm—especially in sensitive or personal topics.

confidentiality

A: Ensuring that participants' responses are not identifiable and their privacy is maintained.

informed consent

A: When participants are fully aware of the procedure and purpose of the research before agreeing to take part.

rapport

A: A trusting and comfortable relationship between interviewer and participant that can improve data quality.

validity in self-report

A: The extent to which the method measures what it claims to measure; can be reduced by biases or poor question design.

ecological validity in self-report

A: The extent to which the data from a self-report reflect real-life experiences or behaviours.

volunteer sampling

A: When participants choose to take part, often via ads or sign-ups; common in self-report studies but may cause bias.

face validity

A: The extent to which a test or questionnaire appears to measure what it claims to measure on the surface.

concurrent validity

A: The extent to which the results of a self-report method correlate with another established measure of the same variable.

temporal validity

A: Whether the findings from a self-report study remain true and relevant over time.

interviewer bias

A: When the interviewer’s expectations, tone, or phrasing unintentionally influence participant responses.

inter-rater reliability (in interviews)

A: The consistency of interview data when analysed or scored by different researchers.

triangulation

A: Using multiple methods (e.g. self-report + observation) to study the same phenomenon to increase validity.

qualitative data

A: Non-numerical, descriptive data often produced by open questions and unstructured interviews.

quantitative data

A: Numerical data often produced by closed questions or structured interviews.

case study (related to self-report)

A: An in-depth investigation of an individual or small group, often using interviews as one of the main methods.

self-report

A: A method of data collection in which participants provide information about themselves, typically through questionnaires or interviews.

questionnaire

A: A written self-report technique where participants respond to a series of questions, which can be open or closed.

interview

A spoken self-report technique involving a researcher asking questions to participants, either face-to-face or remotely.

open question

A: A question that allows participants to respond in their own words, producing qualitative data.

closed question

A: A question that provides limited, predefined response options, producing quantitative data.

Likert scale

A: A scale used in questionnaires to measure the degree of agreement or disagreement with a statement, typically ranging from "strongly agree" to "strongly disagree.

rating scale

A: A type of closed question where participants rate something on a numerical scale (e.g. 1–10).

structured interview

A: An interview where all participants are asked the same pre-determined questions in the same order.

semi-structured interview

A: An interview that uses a mix of pre-set questions and follow-up questions based on the participant’s responses.

unstructured interview

A: An interview with no fixed questions; it is conversational and flexible, guided by the participant’s responses.

pilot study

A: A small-scale trial run of a questionnaire or interview to check clarity, reliability, and functionality before the main study.

standardised instructions

A: Ensuring all participants receive the same instructions in order to reduce variation in responses.

internal validity in self-report

A: The extent to which a self-report method accurately measures what it intends to measure (e.g. honesty, attitudes).

reliability in self-report

A: The consistency of the self-report method, especially over time or between different raters.

subjectivity

A: When data is influenced by personal feelings or opinions, a risk in open questions and unstructured interviews.

objectivity

A: When data is measured without bias or interpretation, often associated with closed questions and structured interviews.

demand characteristics

A: When participants guess the aim of the study and alter their responses, which may bias the results.

social desirability bias

A: When participants answer in a way that they think is socially acceptable or favourable, rather than truthful.

What is response bias

A: A general tendency to respond in a particular way regardless of the actual content, such as always choosing "agree."

acquiescence bias

A: A type of response bias where participants tend to agree with all questions or statements.

leading question

A: A question that suggests or prompts a particular answer, potentially affecting the validity of results.

filler question

A: A question included to distract from the main aim of the questionnaire or to reduce demand characteristics.

ethical issues in self-report

A: Includes confidentiality, informed consent, and psychological harm—especially in sensitive or personal topics.

confidentiality

A: Ensuring that participants' responses are not identifiable and their privacy is maintained.

informed consent

A: When participants are fully aware of the procedure and purpose of the research before agreeing to take part.

rapport

A: A trusting and comfortable relationship between interviewer and participant that can improve data quality.

validity in self-report

A: The extent to which the method measures what it claims to measure; can be reduced by biases or poor question design.

ecological validity in self-report

A: The extent to which the data from a self-report reflect real-life experiences or behaviours.

volunteer sampling

A: When participants choose to take part, often via ads or sign-ups; common in self-report studies but may cause bias.

face validity

A: The extent to which a test or questionnaire appears to measure what it claims to measure on the surface.

concurrent validity

A: The extent to which the results of a self-report method correlate with another established measure of the same variable.

temporal validity

A: Whether the findings from a self-report study remain true and relevant over time.

interviewer bias

A: When the interviewer’s expectations, tone, or phrasing unintentionally influence participant responses.

inter-rater reliability (in interviews)

A: The consistency of interview data when analysed or scored by different researchers.

triangulation

A: Using multiple methods (e.g. self-report + observation) to study the same phenomenon to increase validity.

qualitative data

A: Non-numerical, descriptive data often produced by open questions and unstructured interviews.

quantitative data

A: Numerical data often produced by closed questions or structured interviews.

case study (related to self-report)

A: An in-depth investigation of an individual or small group, often using interviews as one of the main methods.

Case study

An in-depth investigation of an individual, small group, or institution using multiple research methods.

Triangulation

Using more than one method or source of data to improve validity in a case study.

Qualitative data

Non-numerical, descriptive data often gathered through interviews and observations.

Quantitative data

Numerical data that can be measured or counted, sometimes collected in case studies.

Rich data

Detailed and in-depth information obtained from small samples.

Ecological validity (case study)

High, because case studies often investigate real-life situations.

Low generalisability

Findings from case studies may not apply to wider populations due to small or unique samples.

Subjectivity (case studies)

Interpretations may be influenced by the researcher's personal views, reducing objectivity.

Retrospective data

Information recalled from past events, which can be inaccurate or biased.

Ethical issues (case studies)

Sensitive personal information may be disclosed, requiring confidentiality and informed consent.

Observation

/A research method involving watching and recording behaviour without manipulating variables.

Naturalistic observation

Behaviour is observed in its natural environment without interference.

Controlled observation

Observation in a structured environment where some variables are controlled.

Participant observation

The observer becomes part of the group being studied.

Non-participant observation

/The observer does not engage with the group being studied.

Overt observation

Participants are aware they are being observed.

Covert observation

Participants are unaware they are being observed.

Time sampling

Behaviour is recorded at set time intervals.

Event sampling

Every occurrence of a specific behaviour is recorded during a set period.

Behavioural checklist

A list of specific behaviours the observer watches for and records.

Observer bias

When the observer’s expectations influence what is recorded or how it is interpreted.

Inter-rater reliability

The extent to which different observers record the same behaviours consistently.

Structured observation

Behaviour is recorded using a predetermined system such as checklists or coding frames.

Unstructured observation

Observer records all behaviours without a specific system, often producing qualitative data.