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Chronological development
The progression of development over time in a sequential order.
Lifespan development
The study of development from conception to death.
Stability and change
The debate over whether personality traits remain consistent or change over time.
Nature and nurture
The debate over whether genetics or environment has a greater influence on development.
Continuous development
The idea that development is a gradual, cumulative process.
Discontinuous development
The idea that development occurs in distinct stages.
Cross-sectional research
A study that compares people of different ages at the same point in time.
Longitudinal research
A study that follows the same individuals over a long period of time.
Teratogens
Substances that can harm a developing fetus.
Fine motor coordination
The ability to make precise movements with small muscles.
Gross motor coordination
The ability to control large muscles for movement.
Maturation
Biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior.
Reflexes
Automatic responses to stimuli.
Rooting reflex
A baby’s tendency to turn their head toward something that touches their cheek.
Visual cliff
A test to study depth perception in infants.
Critical periods
Specific times during development when certain skills or abilities are most easily learned.
Sensitive periods
Times when an individual is especially responsive to certain experiences.
Imprinting
A form of learning in which young animals form strong attachments to another organism.
Growth spurt
A rapid increase in physical size.
Puberty
The period of sexual maturation.
Primary sex characteristics
Physical features directly involved in reproduction.
Secondary sex characteristics
Physical features not directly involved in reproduction.
Menarche
The first menstrual period in females.
Spermarche
The first ejaculation in males.
Menopause
The end of menstruation and fertility in females.
Mobility
The ability to move independently.
Flexibility
The range of motion in joints.
Reaction time
The time it takes to respond to a stimulus.
Visual-Auditory Acuity
Sharpness of vision and hearing.
Sex/Gender
Sex refers to biological differences, while gender refers to social and cultural roles.
Intersex
Individuals born with atypical combinations of male and female biological traits.
Relational aggression
Harming others through social manipulation or exclusion.
X/Y chromosome
Chromosomes that determine biological sex.
Testosterone/Estrogen
Hormones that influence sexual development and behavior.
Gender identity
A person’s internal sense of being male, female, or another gender.
Gender role
Social expectations about how males and females should behave.
Gender typing
The process of learning gender roles.
Androgyny
Displaying both masculine and feminine traits.
Sexual orientation
A person’s romantic and sexual attraction to others.
Cognition
Mental processes like thinking, knowing, and remembering.
Schemas
Mental frameworks for organizing information.
Assimilation
Incorporating new information into existing schemas.
Accommodation
Adjusting schemas to fit new information.
Sensorimotor stage
Piaget’s stage (birth to 2 years) where infants learn through senses and actions.
Object permanence
Understanding that objects exist even when out of sight.
Preoperational stage
Piaget’s stage (2 to 7 years) marked by symbolic thinking and egocentrism.
Mental symbols
Internal representations of objects or events.
Pretend play
Acting out imaginary scenarios.
Conservation
Understanding that quantity remains the same despite changes in shape.
Reversibility
The ability to mentally reverse actions.
Animism
Attributing lifelike qualities to inanimate objects.
Egocentrism
Difficulty seeing others’ perspectives.
Theory of mind
Understanding that others have their own thoughts and feelings.
Concrete operational stage
Piaget’s stage (7 to 11 years) marked by logical thinking about concrete events.
Systematic thinking
Solving problems methodically.
Formal operational stage
Piaget’s stage (12+ years) marked by abstract and hypothetical thinking.
Abstract thinking
Thinking about concepts and ideas.
Hypothetical thinking
Considering possibilities and 'what if' scenarios.
Scaffolding (Vygotsky)
Providing support to help a child learn, then gradually removing it.
Zone of proximal development
The range of tasks a child can perform with help but not alone.
Crystallized intelligence
Accumulated knowledge and skills.
Fluid intelligence
The ability to solve new problems.
Dementia
A decline in cognitive function due to brain damage or disease.
Phonemes
The smallest units of sound in language.
Morphemes
The smallest units of meaning in language.
Semantics
The meaning of words and sentences.
Grammar
The rules for combining words into sentences.
Syntax
The arrangement of words in sentences.
Non-verbal manual gestures
Communication through hand movements.
Cooing
Early vowel-like sounds made by infants.
Babbling
Repetitive consonant-vowel sounds made by infants.
One-word stage
The stage when children use single words to communicate.
Telegraphic speech
Two-word sentences that convey meaning.
Overgeneralization of language rules
Applying grammar rules too broadly.
Ecological systems theory
Bronfenbrenner’s theory that development is influenced by multiple environmental systems.
Microsystem
The immediate environment, such as family or school.
Mesosystem
Interactions between microsystems.
Exosystem
External environments that indirectly affect development.
Macrosystem
Cultural values and societal norms.
Chronosystem
Changes over time that influence development.
Authoritarian parenting
Strict rules with little warmth.
Authoritative parenting
Balanced rules and warmth.
Permissive parenting
High warmth with few rules.
Secure attachment
A healthy bond between child and caregiver.
Insecure attachment
A less healthy bond, including avoidant, anxious, or disorganized styles.
Avoidant attachment
A child who avoids their caregiver.
Anxious attachment
A child who is overly clingy and anxious.
Disorganized attachment
A child who shows inconsistent behavior.
Temperament
Innate personality traits.
Separation anxiety
Distress when separated from a caregiver.
Contact comfort
The comfort derived from physical touch.
Parallel play
Playing alongside but not with others.
Imaginary audience
The belief that others are constantly watching and judging.
Personal fable
The belief that one’s experiences are unique.
Social clock
Cultural expectations for life milestones.
Emerging adulthood
The period between adolescence and full adulthood.
Stage theory of psychosocial development
Erikson’s theory that development occurs in eight stages, each with a unique crisis.
Trust and mistrust
Infants learn to trust or mistrust their caregivers.
Autonomy and shame and doubt
Toddlers develop independence or self-doubt.
Initiative and guilt
Preschoolers learn to take initiative or feel guilty.
