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Ap Psych Unit 3
Chronological development: The progression of development over time in a sequential order.
Example: A child learns to crawl, then walk, and then run.
Lifespan development: The study of development from conception to death.
Example: Studying how cognitive abilities change from infancy to old age.
Stability and change: The debate over whether personality traits remain consistent (stability) or change over time (change).
Example: A shy child may remain shy into adulthood (stability) or become more outgoing (change).
Nature and nurture: The debate over whether genetics (nature) or environment (nurture) has a greater influence on development.
Example: Intelligence may be influenced by genes (nature) and education (nurture).
Continuous development: The idea that development is a gradual, cumulative process.
Example: A child’s vocabulary grows steadily over time.
Discontinuous development: The idea that development occurs in distinct stages.
Example: Piaget’s stages of cognitive development.
Cross-sectional research: A study that compares people of different ages at the same point in time.
Example: Comparing memory abilities of 20-year-olds and 60-year-olds.
Longitudinal research: A study that follows the same individuals over a long period of time.
Example: Tracking the academic performance of a group of students from kindergarten through college.
Prenatal and Physical Development
Teratogens: Substances that can harm a developing fetus.
Example: Alcohol or drugs during pregnancy.
Fine motor coordination: The ability to make precise movements with small muscles.
Example: Writing or buttoning a shirt.
Gross motor coordination: The ability to control large muscles for movement.
Example: Running or jumping.
Maturation: Biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior.
Example: A child’s ability to walk develops as their muscles and nervous system mature.
Reflexes: Automatic responses to stimuli.
Example: The sucking reflex in newborns.
Rooting reflex: A baby’s tendency to turn their head toward something that touches their cheek.
Example: A baby turns toward a bottle or breast.
Visual cliff: A test to study depth perception in infants.
Example: A baby hesitates to crawl over a glass-covered drop-off.
Critical periods: Specific times during development when certain skills or abilities are most easily learned.
Example: Language acquisition in early childhood.
Sensitive periods: Times when an individual is especially responsive to certain experiences.
Example: Learning a second language is easier in childhood.
Imprinting: A form of learning in which young animals form strong attachments to another organism.
Example: Ducklings following their mother.
Growth spurt: A rapid increase in physical size.
Example: Adolescents growing several inches in a short time.
Puberty: The period of sexual maturation.
Example: Development of secondary sex characteristics like facial hair or breast growth.
Primary sex characteristics: Physical features directly involved in reproduction.
Example: Development of ovaries or testes.
Secondary sex characteristics: Physical features not directly involved in reproduction.
Example: Broad shoulders in males or wider hips in females.
Menarche: The first menstrual period in females.
Example: A girl’s first period at age 12.
Spermarche: The first ejaculation in males.
Example: A boy’s first nocturnal emission.
Menopause: The end of menstruation and fertility in females.
Example: A woman in her 50s stops having periods.
Mobility: The ability to move independently.
Example: A toddler learning to walk.
Flexibility: The range of motion in joints.
Example: A gymnast performing a split.
Reaction time: The time it takes to respond to a stimulus.
Example: A driver braking when a car stops suddenly.
Visual-Auditory Acuity: Sharpness of vision and hearing.
Example: A musician detecting subtle differences in pitch.
Gender and Sexuality
Sex/Gender: Sex refers to biological differences, while gender refers to social and cultural roles.
Example: A person may be biologically male (sex) but identify as non-binary (gender).
Intersex: Individuals born with atypical combinations of male and female biological traits.
Example: A person born with both ovarian and testicular tissue.
Relational aggression: Harming others through social manipulation or exclusion.
Example: Spreading rumors about a classmate.
X/Y chromosome: Chromosomes that determine biological sex.
Example: Females have XX, and males have XY.
Testosterone/Estrogen: Hormones that influence sexual development and behavior.
Example: Testosterone promotes muscle growth, while estrogen regulates the menstrual cycle.
Gender identity: A person’s internal sense of being male, female, or another gender.
Example: A transgender person identifying as female.
Gender role: Social expectations about how males and females should behave.
Example: The idea that women should be nurturing.
Gender typing: The process of learning gender roles.
Example: A boy being encouraged to play with trucks.
Androgyny: Displaying both masculine and feminine traits.
Example: A person who is both assertive and empathetic.
Sexual orientation: A person’s romantic and sexual attraction to others.
Example: A person identifying as gay, straight, or bisexual.
Cognitive Development
Cognition: Mental processes like thinking, knowing, and remembering.
Example: Solving a math problem.
Schemas: Mental frameworks for organizing information.
Example: A child’s schema for “dog” includes four legs and fur.
Assimilation: Incorporating new information into existing schemas.
Example: A child calling a cat a “dog” because it has four legs.
Accommodation: Adjusting schemas to fit new information.
Example: A child learns that cats and dogs are different animals.
Sensorimotor stage: Piaget’s stage (birth to 2 years) where infants learn through senses and actions.
Example: A baby shaking a rattle.
Object permanence: Understanding that objects exist even when out of sight.
Example: A baby looking for a toy hidden under a blanket.
Preoperational stage: Piaget’s stage (2 to 7 years) marked by symbolic thinking and egocentrism.
Example: A child pretending a stick is a sword.
Mental symbols: Internal representations of objects or events.
Example: A child imagining a cookie.
Pretend play: Acting out imaginary scenarios.
Example: A child pretending to be a doctor.
Conservation: Understanding that quantity remains the same despite changes in shape.
Example: Recognizing that pouring water into a taller glass doesn’t increase the amount.
Reversibility: The ability to mentally reverse actions.
Example: Understanding that 2 + 3 = 5 and 5 - 3 = 2.
Animism: Attributing lifelike qualities to inanimate objects.
Example: A child thinking a stuffed animal has feelings.
Egocentrism: Difficulty seeing others’ perspectives.
Example: A child hiding their eyes and thinking others can’t see them.
Theory of mind: Understanding that others have their own thoughts and feelings.
Example: A child realizing their friend is sad because they lost a toy.
Concrete operational stage: Piaget’s stage (7 to 11 years) marked by logical thinking about concrete events.
Example: A child understanding that 2 + 2 = 4.
Systematic thinking: Solving problems methodically.
Example: A child solving a puzzle step by step.
Formal operational stage: Piaget’s stage (12+ years) marked by abstract and hypothetical thinking.
Example: A teenager debating philosophical questions.
Abstract thinking: Thinking about concepts and ideas.
Example: Understanding justice or freedom.
Hypothetical thinking: Considering possibilities and “what if” scenarios.
Example: Imagining what life would be like on another planet.
Scaffolding (Vygotsky): Providing support to help a child learn, then gradually removing it.
Example: A parent helping a child tie their shoes.
Zone of proximal development: The range of tasks a child can perform with help but not alone.
Example: A child learning to read with a teacher’s guidance.
Crystallized intelligence: Accumulated knowledge and skills.
Example: Vocabulary and facts.
Fluid intelligence: The ability to solve new problems.
Example: Solving a puzzle you’ve never seen before.
Dementia: A decline in cognitive function due to brain damage or disease.
Example: Memory loss in Alzheimer’s disease.
Language Development
Phonemes: The smallest units of sound in language.
Example: The “b” sound in “bat.”
Morphemes: The smallest units of meaning in language.
Example: The word “cats” has two morphemes: “cat” and “s.”
Semantics: The meaning of words and sentences.
Example: Understanding that “dog” refers to a furry, four-legged animal.
Grammar: The rules for combining words into sentences.
Example: “I am happy” is correct, while “I happy am” is not.
Syntax: The arrangement of words in sentences.
Example: “The cat chased the mouse” vs. “The mouse chased the cat.”
Non-verbal manual gestures: Communication through hand movements.
Example: Waving goodbye.
Cooing: Early vowel-like sounds made by infants.
Example: A baby saying “oooh” or “aaah.”
Babbling: Repetitive consonant-vowel sounds made by infants.
Example: A baby saying “bababa.”
One-word stage: The stage when children use single words to communicate.
Example: A toddler saying “milk” to ask for a drink.
Telegraphic speech: Two-word sentences that convey meaning.
Example: “Want cookie.”
Overgeneralization of language rules: Applying grammar rules too broadly.
Example: Saying “goed” instead of “went.”
Ecological Systems Theory
Ecological systems theory: Bronfenbrenner’s theory that development is influenced by multiple environmental systems.
Example: A child’s development is shaped by family, school, and culture.
Microsystem: The immediate environment, such as family or school.
Example: A child’s relationship with their parents.
Mesosystem: Interactions between microsystems.
Example: A parent-teacher conference.
Exosystem: External environments that indirectly affect development.
Example: A parent’s workplace policies.
Macrosystem: Cultural values and societal norms.
Example: The emphasis on education in a society.
Chronosystem: Changes over time that influence development.
Example: The impact of a historical event like a war.
Parenting Styles
Authoritarian parenting: Strict rules with little warmth.
Example: A parent who demands obedience without explanation.
Authoritative parenting: Balanced rules and warmth.
Example: A parent who sets rules but explains the reasons.
Permissive parenting: High warmth with few rules.
Example: A parent who lets their child stay up late.
Attachment and Social Development
Secure attachment: A healthy bond between child and caregiver.
Example: A child who feels safe exploring but seeks comfort when scared.
Insecure attachment: A less healthy bond, including avoidant, anxious, or disorganized styles.
Example: A child who avoids their caregiver after separation.
Avoidant attachment: A child who avoids their caregiver.
Example: A child who ignores their parent after being apart.
Anxious attachment: A child who is overly clingy and anxious.
Example: A child who cries excessively when their parent leaves.
Disorganized attachment: A child who shows inconsistent behavior.
Example: A child who seems confused or fearful around their caregiver.
Temperament: Innate personality traits.
Example: A baby who is naturally calm or fussy.
Separation anxiety: Distress when separated from a caregiver.
Example: A toddler crying when their parent leaves for work.
Contact comfort: The comfort derived from physical touch.
Example: A baby calming down when held.
Parallel play: Playing alongside but not with others.
Example: Two toddlers playing with blocks near each other.
Pretend play: Acting out imaginary scenarios.
Example: A child pretending to be a superhero.
Egocentrism: Difficulty seeing others’ perspectives.
Example: A child thinking everyone likes the same toys they do.
Imaginary audience: The belief that others are constantly watching and judging.
Example: A teenager thinking everyone notices their acne.
Personal fable: The belief that one’s experiences are unique.
Example: A teenager thinking no one understands their feelings.
Social clock: Cultural expectations for life milestones.
Example: Getting married by age 30.
Emerging adulthood: The period between adolescence and full adulthood.
Example: A 20-year-old exploring career options.
Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages
Stage theory of psychosocial development: Erikson’s theory that development occurs in eight stages, each with a unique crisis.
Example: Trust vs. mistrust in infancy.
Trust and mistrust: Infants learn to trust or mistrust their caregivers.
- Example: A baby who feels safe when their needs are met.Autonomy and shame and doubt: Toddlers develop independence or self-doubt.
- Example: A child learning to dress themselves.Initiative and guilt: Preschoolers learn to take initiative or feel guilty.
- Example: A child planning a game with friends.Industry and inferiority: School-aged children develop competence or inferiority.
- Example: A child learning to read.Identity and role confusion: Adolescents explore their identity.
- Example: A teenager trying out different hobbies.Intimacy and isolation: Young adults form close relationships or feel isolated.
- Example: A person committing to a romantic relationship.Generativity and stagnation: Adults contribute to society or feel stagnant.
- Example: A parent raising children.Integrity and despair: Older adults reflect on their lives with satisfaction or regret.
- Example: An elderly person feeling proud of their accomplishments.
Identity Development
Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs): Traumatic events in childhood that affect development.
- Example: Abuse or neglect.Identity Achievement: Successfully forming a clear sense of self.
- Example: A teenager who knows their career goals.Identity Diffusion: Lack of commitment to an identity.
- Example: A teenager unsure of their future.Identity Foreclosure: Adopting an identity without exploration.
- Example: A teenager following their parents’ career choice.Identity Moratorium: Actively exploring identity without commitment.
- Example: A college student trying different majors.Racial/ethnic identity: A person’s sense of belonging to a racial or ethnic group.
- Example: A person identifying as African American.Sexual orientation: A person’s romantic and sexual attraction.
- Example: A person identifying as bisexual.Religious identity: A person’s affiliation with a religion.
- Example: A person identifying as Christian.Occupational identity: A person’s identification with their career.
- Example: A person identifying as a teacher.Familial identity: A person’s role within their family.
- Example: A person identifying as a caregiver.Possible selves: The different versions of oneself one might become.
- Example: A teenager imagining themselves as a doctor or artist.
Behavioral Perspective
Behavioral perspective: Focuses on observable behavior and learning.
- Example: Studying how rewards influence behavior.Observable behavior: Actions that can be seen and measured.
- Example: A student raising their hand in class.Stimulus: Any event or object that elicits a response.
- Example: A bell ringing.Response: A reaction to a stimulus.
- Example: Salivating when food is presented.
Classical Conditioning
Association: Learning that two events occur together.
- Example: Associating a bell with food.Acquisition: The initial stage of learning a response.
- Example: A dog learning to salivate at the sound of a bell.Associative learning: Learning that two stimuli are linked.
- Example: Associating lightning with thunder.Unconditioned stimulus (UCS): A stimulus that naturally triggers a response.
- Example: Food causing salivation.Unconditioned response (UR): A natural response to an unconditioned stimulus.
- Example: Salivating in response to food.Conditioned response (CR): A learned response to a conditioned stimulus.
- Example: Salivating at the sound of a bell.Conditioned stimulus (CS): A previously neutral stimulus that triggers a conditioned response.
- Example: A bell that signals food.Extinction: The weakening of a conditioned response.
- Example: A dog stops salivating when the bell no longer predicts food.Spontaneous recovery: The reappearance of an extinguished response.
- Example: A dog salivating again after a break.Stimulus discrimination: The ability to distinguish between similar stimuli.
- Example: A dog responding only to a specific bell.Stimulus generalization: Responding to similar stimuli.
- Example: A dog salivating to bells of different tones.Higher-order conditioning: Pairing a conditioned stimulus with a new stimulus.
- Example: A light predicting a bell, which predicts food.Counterconditioning: Replacing an unwanted response with a desired one.
- Example: Treating a phobia by pairing the feared object with relaxation.Taste aversion: A learned avoidance of a particular food.
- Example: Avoiding a food that made you sick.One-trial conditioning: Learning after a single pairing.
- Example: Developing a fear of dogs after one bite.Biological preparedness: The tendency to learn certain associations more easily.
- Example: Humans are more likely to fear snakes than flowers.One-trial learning: Learning after a single experience.
- Example: Avoiding a food after one bad experience.Habituation: Reduced response to a repeated stimulus.
- Example: Ignoring a constant noise.
Operant Conditioning
Operant conditioning: Learning through rewards and punishments.
- Example: A dog learning to sit for a treat.Reinforcement: Increasing the likelihood of a behavior.
- Example: Giving a child candy for cleaning their room.Punishment: Decreasing the likelihood of a behavior.
- Example: Scolding a child for hitting.Law of Effect: Behaviors followed by positive outcomes are more likely to be repeated.
- Example: A student studies more after getting good grades.Positive reinforcement: Adding a desirable stimulus to increase behavior.
- Example: Giving a dog a treat for sitting.Negative reinforcement: Removing an unpleasant stimulus to increase behavior.
- Example: Taking painkillers to relieve a headache.Primary reinforcers: Innately rewarding stimuli.
- Example: Food or water.Secondary reinforcers: Learned rewards.
- Example: Money or praise.Reinforcement discrimination: Responding only to specific reinforcement.
- Example: A child only cleaning their room for candy, not praise.Reinforcement generalization: Responding to similar reinforcement.
- Example: A child cleaning their room for any reward.Shaping: Reinforcing successive approximations of a desired behavior.
- Example: Teaching a dog to roll over by rewarding small steps.Instinctive drift: The tendency for learned behaviors to revert to innate behaviors.
- Example: A trained pig rooting with its snout.Superstitious behavior: Associating a behavior with a reward by chance.
- Example: A basketball player wearing “lucky” socks.Learned helplessness: Feeling unable to control outcomes after repeated failures.
- Example: A student giving up after failing multiple tests.Reinforcement schedules: Patterns of delivering reinforcement.
- Example: Fixed ratio, variable interval, etc.Continuous reinforcement: Reinforcing a behavior every time it occurs.
- Example: Giving a dog a treat every time it sits.Partial reinforcement: Reinforcing a behavior only some of the time.
- Example: Giving a dog a treat occasionally for sitting.Fixed interval: Reinforcing a behavior after a set time.
- Example: A paycheck every two weeks.Variable interval: Reinforcing a behavior after unpredictable time intervals.
- Example: Checking email and finding a message at random times.Fixed ratio: Reinforcing a behavior after a set number of responses.
- Example: A factory worker paid per item produced.Variable ratio: Reinforcing a behavior after an unpredictable number of responses.
- Example: Gambling on a slot machine.Scalloped graph: A pattern of responding in fixed interval schedules.
- Example: A graph showing increased responding near the reinforcement time.
Social Learning Theory
Social learning theory: Learning through observation and imitation.
- Example: A child learning to cook by watching their parent.Vicarious conditioning: Learning by observing others’ experiences.
- Example: A child avoiding a hot stove after seeing their sibling get burned.Modeling: Imitating the behavior of others.
- Example: A child copying their parent’s manners.Insight learning: Solving problems through sudden understanding.
- Example: A chimpanzee stacking boxes to reach a banana.Latent learning: Learning that occurs without immediate reinforcement.
- Example: A rat exploring a maze without rewards.Cognitive maps: Mental representations of physical spaces.
- Example: A person navigating a city using a mental map.
NoteStudied by 10 peopleNoteStudied by 12267 peopleNoteStudied by 25 peopleNoteStudied by 28 peopleNoteStudied by 6 peopleNoteStudied by 9 people