History A-level Edexcel - Russia 1917-1991: from Lenin to Yeltsin - Theme 5

Long-term economic weakness

- economic weakness outlined in Novosibirsk Report (1983)

- declining growth rates since 1960s

- arms race at huge expense

Fundamental economic weaknesses (problems inherent with command economy)

- failure to create incentives for hard work/innovation (increasingly egalitarian society) --> low labour productivity

- waste as quantity over quality prioritised

- lack of modernisation - poor agricultural equipment meant more labour needed, poor transport networks, lack of modern storage facilities so produce wasted

- arms race so disproportionate spending on defence

- centralisation and planning - farmers couldn't adjust schedule for weather, fertilisers arrived at wrong time/type --> production not maximised

Gorbachev's initial economic reforms - politburo changes

- Grigory Romanov dismissed in July 1985 and replaced by Ligachev and Ryzhkov

- Yeltsin and Yakovlev promoted to central committee in 1986

Gorbachev's initial economic reforms - campaign against alcoholism (1985-88)

Causes: improve population's health and workforce productivity

Events: legal drinking age raised to 21, reduced no. shops where alcohol could be bought, vineyards destroyed, distilleries closed, vodka cost 3x, reduced alcohol production at state run-factories, created new task force to stop illegal alcohol production

Problems: alcohol tax revenues fell so budget shortfall, drinking rose as illegal moonshine liquor produced

Gorbachev's initial economic reforms - 12th FYP (1986-90)

Aims: improve economic growth

Events: increased investment focused on science+research, central planning, attempts to streamline state apparatus to avoid waste+cut rivalry, superministries to coordinate economy

Problems: investment skewed towards construction which tended to overspend, old equipment used, foreign technology imports, large agricultural investment, focus on quantity not quality, reforms to be implemented by people whose positions the reforms were trying to reduce, war in Afghanistan consuming resources, GDP dropped, prices rising, widespread dissatisfaction with government, strikes increased

Gorbachev's initial economic reforms - Economic perestroika (restructuring)

- economic restructuring launched at Jan 1987 Plenum of the Central Committee

- market mechanisms and private enterprise allowed to incentivise production and give greater flexibility

- 3 stages: rationalisation, reform, transformation

Key Reforms:

- encouragement of joint ventures (Jan 1987) - foreign firms allowed to establish business in SU

- law on state enterprises (June 1987) - loosened state control over wages+prices weakening gosplan, choice of managers

- cooperatives legalised (1988) - small scale private enterprise established

Gorbachev's initial economic reforms - impact of perestroika

- food production only slightly grew, still inadequate to feed population

- enterprises subject to state interference

- products diverted from to state shops to cooperatives which charged higher prices leading to inflation and lack of supply

- cooperatives made deals with richer city authorities

- cooperatives more productive so attracted corrupt officials demanding bribes for permission to operate

- supply uncertainty so hoarding --> rationing

- wage rises

- bureaucracy for foreign investment

- reforms undermined by officials

- situation made worse by falling oil price

Gorbachev's initial economic reforms - acceleration (uskorenie)

- increase in investment to modernise economy and make it more efficient

- failed due to decline in oil prices and decline in alcohol revenues

- acceleration financed by borrowing from western countries leading to debt so more interest needed to be paid so less money for investment

- Gorbachev invested in energy production instead of machinery so no growth

Gorbachev's initial economic reforms - partial market reform

- Law on Individual Activity (Nov 1986) - families+individuals could make money from small scale work

- Law on State Enterprise (1987) - devolve power from government to factory management (could set prices for their production) - failed as little power was actually devolved and gov had to pay more for goods increasing their debt

- Law on Co-operatives (1988) - legal to set up large-scale private companies

- gosplan power restricted

Gorbachev's initial economic reforms - problems with the partial market

- government subsidised prices so didn't reflect value of goods/services

- free market prices higher than state-subsidised prices so free market goods unpopular

- created economic chaos as undermined by central planning

- no effective way of distributing goods so food shortages

Gorbachev's initial economic reforms - transition to a market economy

- July 1989 report concluded need for market-led economy causing Politburo split

- 500 Days Programme recommended rapid move to market economy, rejected by soviet government but accepted by Russian Parliament

- division between central party leadership and national republic caused chaos and economic collapse

- Jan 1991, supreme soviets introduced private property

- Apr 1991, citizens allowed to trade stocks and shares

- economy continued to decline, government bankrupt

The problems of political reform

- centralised party controlled state across whole SU, regional parties in each republic obeying communist party, disciplined party obeying Politburo

- communist party had become the government of SU

- discord between reality of soviet government and communist ideals(democracy for working people) leading to cynicism but reform dangerous as democracy could lead to fall of communism

Gorbachev's political objectives

- revitalise soviet union and end stagnation and corruption

- end cynicism and apathy of soviet people

- soviet union needed to return to Lenin model with people playing genuine role in politics

- open up debate within party, allow intellectuals freedom of expression, allow public to have more access to information

Gorbachev's attempted political reforms

- sought to separate state and party in June 1988

- shift power from party to soviets by allocating more finance to soviets and extending election to 5 years

- streamlining of party - central committee departments reduced from 20 to 9, 6 new commissions created, super ministries

- replace senior officials close to Brezhnev and appoint young communists to senior positions

- clampdown on corruption e.g. Yuri Churbanov, Brezhnev's son-in-law, sentenced to 12 years imprisonment

- moves towards democratisation an openess to limit power of traditionalists and speed up economic reform

Gorbachev's attempted political reforms - Glasnost (1986-88)

- Aimed to encourage new ideas to revitalise communist party and be open about state of soviet economy in order to end corruption and gain support from outside the party

- key topics: poor housing, Stalin's actions, WW2 victory, environmental issues

- 27th Party Congress (1986) - new programme adopted, democratisation linked to glasnot

- Aleksandr Yakovlev given responsibility of media which liberalised media - banned books/films/plays published

- dissidents released from prison e.g. Andrei Sakharov

- glasnot extended in 1987-88 - in 1988 Marx and Lenin criticised by Alexsandr Tsipko, foreign radio/newspapers permitted from 1988

- resulted in a wave of criticism against the party

Gorbachev's attempted political reforms - consequences of Glasnot

- allowed Gorbachev, communist radicals and intellectuals to criticise moderates in party and government

- Gorbachev himself criticised

- soviet system criticised

- groups in republics began to demand independence from SU

- destabilised party rule

Gorbachev's attempted political reforms - democratisation (1988-90)

- secret ballots discussed in 1897

- June 1987, experiment with multiple candidates for local soviet elections

- June 1988 at 19th party conference, Gorbachev announced multi-candidate elections on national level for Congress of People's Deputies, independent candidates could stand for election

- 1988 reforms were partial (citizens still couldn't vote for different parties just between radicals, moderates and independents)

- Supreme soviet reformed - Gorbachev appointed chair

- republic elections (1990)

- democratisation weakened communist party but did not produce strong government and challenged the role of the party

Power before and after democratisation

Before:

- general secretary of the communist party most powerful position (held by Gorbachev)

- no elections, people didn't choose candidates in elections, leaders chosen within party

- USSR one party state

After:

- multi-candidate elections

- first letting people choose between individuals and then between parties

- new role of President of USSR (not needed before as not multiple parties)

- Congress of People's deputies - created in 1989, members were democratically elected and so non-communists could hold seats, they voted for the President

Gorbachev's attempted political reforms - democratisation (1988-90) - 1989 election

- candidates forced to engage in public debate to win votes

- communists won 80% of seats in Congress of People's Deputies but some high-ranking communists defeated (5 members of central committee)

- Yeltsin won 89% of vote in Moscow

- newly elected deputies formed IRDG with anti-communist agenda

Consequences:

- election weakened position of moderates as intended

- nationalists used election as independence campaign

- Yeltsin became popular and a rival to Gorbachev

Gorbachev's attempted political reforms - constitutional reform

- March 1990 - Gorbachev appointed as President of SU to increase his power (to avoid risk of Yeltsin winning presidential elections, Gorbachev decided President would be appointed by Congress of People's Deputies therefore lacked democratic legitimacy)

- Gorbachev given emergency powers for 18 months to deal with economic crisis+unrest - sometimes used to censor press/use soviet troops to restore order

Impact of Gorbachev's failure to reform the Party - communist party unity

- increasing divisions within party

- alienating reformers - Yeltsin and Gorbachev disagreements (Plenum of the Central Committee in Oct 1987)

- alienating conservatives - March 1988 party conservatives attempted to strike back

- development of factions

- abolition of Article 6 (which stated that the communist party help position of leading force of soviet society enshrining one-party state) - repealed in March 1990 ending party monopoly on power

The Soviet Union and the Republics before 1985

- soviet constitution considered each republic in SU as independent state (own supreme soviet and gov institutions) but in reality soviet communist party governed entire SU

- each republic had own government dominated by locals, people within owed power to soviet system so loyal

- secret police+army dominated by Russians so kept under strict central control

- soviet nationalism encouraged over republic nationalism (unpopular in non-Russian republics as based on Russian values)

- from 1953, investment (homes, education) targeted at poorer regions in SU which tended to be in non-Russian republics, leading to improved standing of living in those areas and so support

The Soviet Union and the Republics before 1985 - under Brezhnev

- each republic could introduced education in own language

- increased publications of books/newspapers in non-Russian languages

- new universities to education non-Russian citizens

- 'trust in cadres' allowed local elites to consolidate their hold over communist parties

- greater representation of Turkish in Central Committee and Politburo

Causes of resurgence of nationalism - cadre changes

- effective government over representative government

- existing leaders in non-Russian republics replaced with Russians

- Gorbachev's Politburo had 1 non-Russian creating resentment e.g. 1986 Kazakhstan riot over Gennadii Kolbin replacing Dinmukhammed Kunaev

Causes of resurgence of nationalism - acceleration

- Gorbachev's economic reforms led to economic decline so standards of living worsening in republics

- economic decline became associated with new Russian leadership

- unchallenged privileges of party officials so inequality

Causes of resurgence of nationalism - glasnot

Glasnot led to demand for greater autonomy/full independence because:

- exposed Stalin's government terror

- showed high western standards of living and hence greater comparison to west so undermined perception that SU had benefited the republics

- allowed nationalist groups to publish material for greater autonomy

Causes of resurgence of nationalism - the Sinatra Doctrine

- Brezhnev doctrine formulated in 1968 to prevent Czech gov introducing liberal reforms

- Brezhnev doctrine rejected in Aug 1989 - all countries could follow own path to communism

- Gorbachev informed each regime's leader at Cherenko's funeral in in March 1985 that he would not intervene in internal affairs

- also ended as expensive to support satellite states

- Gorbachev believed armed intervention was morally wrong

Resurgence of nationalism - consequences of the Sinatra Doctrine

- attempts by some governments to reform e.g. Hungary in 1989

- problem for leaders who wanted to resist reform as could no longer rely on soviet intervention

- fall of communism

- destruction of Berlin Wall on 9 Nov 1989 symbolising the end of Soviet control of Eastern Europe

Causes of resurgence of nationalism - democratisation

- allowed nationalists to fight and win elections

- March 1990 - Lithuanian parliament declared independence

- Yeltsin stated in May 1990 that Russian parliament laws superior to soviet laws

- old Russian flag and double headed eagle (symbol of old Russian monarchy) reemerged

Fall of communism in Eastern Europe - Poland

- allowed independent workers' organisation (solidarity) and other political groups to stand in elections in 1989

- Solidarity defeated communist party and USSR didn't stop events

Fall of communism in Eastern Europe (1989)

- Hungary - Janos Kander sacked in 1988 and other political parties allowed to contest elections

- East Germany - mass demonstrations, Berlin Wall dismantled on 9 Nov 1989

- Czechoslovakia - Civic form coordinated campaign against communist gov, Vaclav Havel elected President in 1989

- Romania - support for regime collapsed, Nicolae Ceausescu arrested and executed

Factors encouraging the growth of nationalism within USSR

- environmental concerns

- insecurity of local party leaders due to reduced power

- culture and language

Growth of nationalism - Nagorno-Karabakh

- autonomous region within Azerbaijan population by Armenians

- 1988 violence erupted over desire to join Armenian republic

- soviet government intervened which inflamed situation

Growth of nationalism - Tbilisi massacre (9 April 1989)

- Georgian nationalists protested rights of Abkhazian minority

- soviet troops restored order through force killing 19 Georgian protestors

- led to concern among nationalists in all republics that soviet gov prepared to use force

- gov refused to take responsibility for killings blaming local military leaders so military commanders became unwilling to use force against protestors

Growth of nationalism - the Baltic republics

- Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania has been independent before 1939, had higher education levels, more economically developed

- Apr-Oct 1988, Popular Fronts established and calls for independence

- Estonia declared itself sovereign from SU in Nov 1988

- Aug 1989, mass demonstration for independence with human chain across the republics on anniversary of Nazi-Soviet pact(1939)

- 1990, Popular Fronts won majority and all states declared independence

Growth of nationalism - Russia

- caused by economics crisis and growing environmental concerns (glasnot showed pollution)

- 1987, environmentalists organised mass demonstrations against soviet gov environment policies

- want to protect national monuments+traditional buildings

- June 1991 - Russia elected own president, Yeltsin (57% of vote)

Growth of nationalism - Gorbachev's response

- proposed new union treaty in 1990 but negotiations hampered by Gorbachev's declining authority

- March 1991 Gorbachev proposed a referendum of all people in SU and reached a provisional agreement in April 1991 (9+1 agreement)

Limits of nationalism being cause for fall of the USSR

- limited experience of independence

- soviet union had allowed a degree of autonomous control

- republics had been net gainers of soviet economic investment

- loyalty to local and tribal groupings often stronger than nationalist sentiment

- role of ethnic Russians

Role of Russian nationalism in the fall of the USSR

- confined mainly to intelligentsia, however Yeltsin and supporters encouraged it to undermine Gorbachev

August coup (1991)

- led by conservatives in communist party as thought new Union Treaty gave republics too much power

- Whilst Gorbachev was away, State Emergency Committee set up on 18 August with 8 senior communists to take over and they set repressive measures e.g. ban on strikes, announced Gorbachev had resigned due to poor health

- Yeltsin called a general strike to resist coup

- soldiers refused to obey orders to arrest Yeltsin

- coup lasted 4 days (poorly planned without full support from army)

Consequences of the August Coup (1991)

- Gorbachev's position weakened, returning statement showed him to be out of touch and not representing majority

- party, army and KGB discredited as behind coup

- Yeltsin's stand against the plotters and call for Gorbachev to be released enhanced his reputation as defender of reform/democracy

- Yeltsin launched market reform in economy (by 1991, communist party monopoly ended) and banned communist party within Russia on 6 Nov

- Yeltsin undermined Union Treaty by refusing to sign and organised Commonwealth of Independent states requiring no central soviet government

- break up of SU (republics declared independence)

- creation of CIS effectively ending SU

Gorbachev's responsibility for the collapse of the USSR

- hero in the west as ended the Cold War, received nobel peace prize in 1990, and dismantled 'repressive' communist system

- in Russia, despised as failed reformer and destroyed of SU

Gorbachev's responsibility for the collapse of the USSR - perestroika failings

- rationalisation (stage 1) declined economic growth leading to more radical policies

- reform (stage 2) weakened SU - glasnot exposed crimes and undermined faith in party and communist ideology, democratisation weakened party and Gorbachev's control

- transformation (stage 3) - communism features abandoned weakening SU

Gorbachev's responsibility for the collapse of the USSR - his reforms

- extensive reform unnecessary in 1985 (decline not crisis)

- reforms created crisis leading to more reforms

- Gorbachev prepared to embrace more radical reforms as time went on, by 1990 prepared to abandon communist features

Gorbachev's responsibility for the collapse of the USSR - westernising

- believed European standards could make SU more humane

- embraced importance of human rights

- embraced pluralism (removed Article 6 of constitution in March 1990)

- renounced violence weakening power of the party

Gorbachev's responsibility for the collapse of the USSR - mistakes and miscalculations

- mistake to believe reform could save the SU

- failed to anticipate effects of glasnot and fragility of commitment to SU

- believed communism had created a new soviet people who no longer felt pull of nationalism

- inconsistent policies with competing objectives e.g. uskorenie

- inconsistent in approach to communist party (1985-90 sided with radicals, 1990-91 sided with conservatives)

- failed to win over communist party

Gorbachev's responsibility for the collapse of the USSR - comparisons to China

- China embraced market reform quicker and more comprehensively than SU so economy grew and party retained authority (Gorbachev's reforms slow+inconsistent)

- CCP more flexible than soviet communist party

- economic reform introduced without increasing political reform in China

Gorbachev's failings as leader

- lack of vision on solutions to problems

- naivety e.g. glasnost

- power base - attacked base of own power

- raised expectations but failed to satisfy them

- foreign policy - ending the Brezhnev doctrine

- insensitive handling of national minorities e.g. Nagorno-Karabakh

- inconsistency e.g. Nov 1987 speech praise Stalin's leadership qualities but condemned his crimes, inconsistent stance on reform

- indecision e.g. Chernobyl nuclear accident

In defence of Gorbachev

- reforms were reasonable attempt at ensuring survival

- launching economic reform, democratisation and decolonising at same time was overambitious

- kept broad support of his reforms for most of his time despite divisions

- avoided using force to impose his will

- reform success undermined by unforeseen international factors

Yeltsin background

- reformer

- removed from Politburo in Feb 1988 but came back to challenge Gorbachev

Yeltsin's responsibility for the collapse of the USSR - popular radical

- publicly attacked communists who opposed reform in 1987 and in 1988 at 19th party congress damaging party's reputation for unity

Yeltsin's responsibility for the collapse of the USSR - 1990

- Yeltsin became Chair of the Russian Congress of People's deputies in May 1990 and in June 1990, congress declared Russian sovereignty

- publicly resigned from communist party in July 1990 weakening support for party

Yeltsin's responsibility for the collapse of the USSR - attitude to nationalism

- encouraged non-Russian republics to establish independence

- emphasised rights of Russia which weakened SU

- during summer of 1990, visited other republics and encouraged their leaders to 'take as much sovreignity as you can swallow'

- supported Baltic states' declaration of independence, condemned Vilnius attack

Yeltsin's responsibility for the collapse of the USSR - creating conflict within the party

- represented middle-ranking communist officials against interest of high-ranking officials

- senior communists wanted to preserve SU because status tied in system

- new young elite emerging

- Yeltsin's new government composed of middle-ranking officials

- Yeltsin had support of counter elite (middle ranking communists who supported SU destruction to enhance own power)

Yeltsin's responsibility for the collapse of the USSR - his handling of the 1991 coup

- coup transformed Yeltsin's strategy as used it to establish Russian independence

- Yeltsin denounced coup as unconstitutional and encouraged popular risings against communist party (Lenin statues demolished) - essentially organised a counter coup

- counter coup - Yeltsin ordered suspension of communist party, close of communist party newspapers, surrounded communist party with armed police

Yeltsin's responsibility for the collapse of the USSR - consequences of Yeltsin's counter coup

- at end of Aug, communist party suspended across SU

- in Nov, Yeltsin banned party in Russia seizing all its money+property

- Yeltsin publish evidence of party corruption

- in Nov, Yeltsin announced Russia was taking control of soviet oil+gold industries

- Yeltsin attacked the party rather than the union but the party held the union together so in effectively the same

Yeltsin's responsibility for the collapse of the USSR - inactivity in preventing the fall

- Gorbachev didn't have the authority to revive negotiations to create a new union after the coup whereas Yeltsin did and could have tried

- Yeltsin believed reconstructing Russia was easier than for the whole union and that achieving democracy would be easier

- chose to build Russia rather than save the union

How did Yeltsin challenge Gorbachev's leadership?

- used time out to establish connections with other reformers

- appealed to public for sympathy and support

- used position as Moscow Mayor in Congress of People's Duties elections to develop power base

- elected chairman of the Congress in 1990

- resigned from communist party in July 1990 and the Congress declared its sovereignty took precedence over SU

- encouraged nationalist movements