Quantitative Data Analysis Lecture Review

A comprehensive set of flashcards covering key concepts in Quantitative Data Analysis, Datasets, and Research Methodologies, designed to aid in exam preparation.

What is Statistical Conclusion Validity?

The validity of conclusions on relationships between variables.

What does a Type 1 Error represent?

Incorrectly concluding that a relationship exists when it does not.

What does a Type 2 Error represent?

Incorrectly concluding that no relationship exists when there is one.

What are common sources of noise in data?

Low reliability of measures, poor implementation fidelity, random irrelevant factors, and participant heterogeneity.

What is the aim for statistical power in research?

To achieve a statistical power greater than 0.8.

How are levels of statistical significance expressed?

As probabilities, such as p < 0.05.

What are the common levels of significance?

0.05, 0.01, and 0.001.

What is the difference between descriptive and inferential statistics?

Descriptive statistics summarize data from a sample, while inferential statistics make predictions about a population from a sample.

What type of analysis focuses on one variable?

Univariate analysis.

What is bivariate analysis?

Analysis that involves two variables.

What is multivariate analysis?

Analysis that involves three or more variables.

How is the mean calculated?

By summing all scores and dividing by the number of scores.

What does the median represent in a dataset?

The middle score in an ordered list of values.

What is the mode in statistics?

The most frequently occurring score in a dataset.

How is the range calculated?

By subtracting the lowest value from the highest value in a dataset.

What do percentiles indicate in statistical data?

The percentage of scores that fall at or below a certain value.

What does standard deviation measure?

The extent to which scores vary from the mean.

What is the formula for calculating standard deviation?

s = √(Σ(xi − x̄)² / (n − 1)).

What is a Chi-Square Test used for?

To compare observed vs. expected frequencies to test relationships between categorical variables.

How is the degrees of freedom calculated in a Chi-Square Test?

(rows - 1) * (columns - 1).

What does 'Statistical Conclusion Validity' refer to?

The accuracy of conclusions drawn about relationships between variables.

What is one way to improve reliability in measurements?

Increasing the length of the measurement.

In statistics, what does a 'p-value' indicate?

The probability that the observed data would occur by chance.

Why is convenience sampling often used in research?

It is easier to implement and more cost-effective.

What is the main limitation of non-probability sampling?

It does not allow for generalization to the larger population.

What does operationalization in research refer to?

Defining variables in practical, measurable terms.

What are the characteristics of a well-constructed survey?

Clear wording, logical format, and relevant response options.

What does 'alternate forms reliability' measure?

The consistency of test results when using different versions of the same test.

What kind of validity examines the accuracy of the measurement process?

Construct validity.

What does internal validity ensure in a study?

That changes in the dependent variable are due to the independent variable and not other factors.

What is the purpose of using a control group in an experiment?

To isolate the effects of the independent variable.

What is a drawback of self-report surveys?

They can be subject to bias and inaccuracies in responses.

What is a ‘confounding variable’?

A variable that influences both the independent and dependent variable causing a false relationship.

What is meant by ‘external validity’?

The extent to which research findings can be generalized to settings, people, and times beyond the study.

How do researchers typically define constructs?

By identifying dimensions and indicators associated with the construct.

What do levels of measurement classify?

The different ways variables can be quantified and categorized.

In what scenario does the Wada Test get utilized?

To assess the contributions of each hemisphere before neurosurgery.

What is an example of a cognitive symptom of schizophrenia?

Disorganized thinking.

How are 'positive symptoms' of schizophrenia characterized?

By the addition of abnormal behaviors like hallucinations and delusions.

What are 'negative symptoms' in schizophrenia?

The absence or reduction of normal emotional responses, such as lack of motivation.

What does the dopamine hypothesis propose regarding schizophrenia?

That abnormal dopamine function contributes to symptoms of schizophrenia.

How does the brain structure change in patients with schizophrenia?

Common changes include enlarged lateral ventricles and cortical abnormalities.

What type of therapy is effective for obsessive-compulsive disorder?

Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT).

What does the term 'false memory' refer to?

The phenomenon where a person remembers an event that did not actually occur.

What is a significant side effect of SSRIs?

They may take weeks to show clinical benefits.

What are the two types of receptor cells in the retina?

Rods and cones.

What is the key function of photoreceptors?

To convert light signals into neural signals.

What role does the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) play in visual processing?

It serves as a relay station for visual information between the optic nerve and the primary visual cortex.

What is the primary difference in how rods and cones function?

Rods are sensitive to low light and do not detect color, while cones function in bright light and detect color.

How do ciliary muscles affect vision?

They adjust the shape of the lens to focus light for near or far vision.

What is ‘lateral inhibition’?

A neural mechanism where one neuron inhibits the activity of neighboring neurons, enhancing edge detection.

What are the three types of cones responsible for color vision?

S-cones (blue), M-cones (green), and L-cones (red).

What is the function of the optic nerve?

To transmit visual information from the retina to the brain.

What can cause prosopagnosia?

Damage to areas of the brain responsible for face recognition.

What is the primary visual cortex also known as?

V1 or the striate cortex.

What determines the visual acuity of human vision?

The density of cones in the fovea and the ability of the eye's optics to focus light accurately.

What is the status of individuals with schizophrenia with respect to their brain's structural characteristics?

They may show increased sizes in certain brain structures, such as larger ventricles.

What do 'on-center' and 'off-center' cells respond to?

They respond to light and dark contrasts in their respective receptive fields.

What is one role of amacrine cells?

To modulate the responses of bipolar and ganglion cells in the retina.

What is brain modularization about?

The idea that different modules in the brain are specialized for specific functions.

What research methods could validate the effectiveness of a new teaching program?

Comparison of academic performance before and after program implementation.

What role does the amygdala play in emotional processing?

It is involved in the processing of emotions and the emotional significance of memories.

What does understanding brain modularization help showcase?

The specialization and adaptability of cognitive capacities in different individuals.

What condition results from a traumatic brain injury leading to memory loss?

Aphasia, where language processing is affected.

How can mental disorders' prevalence vary across demographics?

Rates can differ by gender, age, and geographical location.

What cognitive tests can reveal slow cortical activation in patients with schizophrenia?

Tasks like the Wisconsin Card Sorting Task can show decreased activity in the frontal lobes.

What indicates that an individual has a genetic predisposition to schizophrenia?

A higher incidence rate among biological relatives compared to the general population.

What evidence supports the monoamine hypothesis of depression?

Low levels of monoamines in the Central Nervous System correlate with depressive episodes.

What might cause someone to experience a negative afterimage?

Looking at one color for an extended period and then seeing the complementary color afterward.

What are key treatment options for anxiety disorders?

Anxiolytics like benzodiazepines and various forms of psychotherapy, such as CBT.

What generally happens to visual processing signals as they travel from retinal cells to cortical areas?

Receptive fields expand and become more complex as information is integrated.

What would be a major consequence of damaging the auditory cortex?

It could disrupt the processing of verbal stimuli and affect language comprehension.

What is the overarching goal of conducting social science research?

To identify patterns and regularities within data, not to dictate what should be.

What is the difference between descriptive and applied research?

Descriptive research explores and describes phenomena, while applied research focuses on evaluating real-world issues.

What does a research question typically aim to do?

It specifies the focus of a study to effectively investigate a particular issue.

What is an essential feature of a scientific inquiry approach?

It relies on systematic methodologies and critical evaluation of information.

How is ethical compliance ensured in research practices?

Through review boards and established guidelines to protect human participants.

What is the main benefit of using validated questionnaires in research?

They help ensure reliability and validity of the measurements taken in a study.

What impact does the presence of third variables have on research findings?

They can confound results and obscure the true relationship between variables.

What influence does cultural context have on the expression of psychological disorders?

It can shape how symptoms are presented and treated, affecting diagnosis and recovery.

How is the relationship between anxiety and depression categorized?

As comorbid conditions, where one often exacerbates the other.

What does the term ‘ecological validity’ imply?

The extent to which study findings can be generalized to real-world settings.

How do hormones affect one's mood as seen in depression?

Alterations in stress hormones can impact mood regulation and psychological well-being.

What is significant about neuromodulators in the context of depression and anxiety?

Neurotransmitters like serotonin play crucial roles in mood regulation and are targeted by treatments.

What physiological changes are often observed in individuals diagnosed with PTSD?

Increased arousal and alterations in stress response systems, including brain structure changes.

What advances in treatment have emerged in tackling depressive disorders?

Emerging treatments like ketamine and psychedelics are being explored for rapid antidepressant effects.

What is the role of feedback in eyewitness testimonies?

It can significantly skew accuracy and reliability of the memories recalled.

What contributes to increased rates of impulse control disorders in some demographics?

Factors like stress and environmental triggers could exacerbate these impulsive behaviors.

How might research shape public policy?

By providing empirical evidence for informed decisions regarding societal issues.

What commonality exists between anxiety disorders and personality disorders?

Both can involve heightened sensitivity to stress and may influence relational dynamics.

What aspects of treatment must be considered for effective outcomes in mental health?

Individualized approaches that account for personal history, context, and presenting issues.

What cognitive processes might be affected by excessive worry?

Impacts include impaired decision making, focus difficulties, and emotional regulation issues.

How does contextual learning relate to processing visual information?

Contextual information helps with understanding and interpreting visual scenes more accurately.

What is the importance of structure in research design?

Well-structured research facilitates clear conclusions and replicability in findings.

What is the implication of genetic influences in psychiatric disorders?

Genetics can act as one of multiple factors contributing to the risk of developing a disorder.

What does recent neuroimaging suggest about cognitive functions in split-brain patients?

It points towards some retained capacities despite severed inter-hemispheric communication.

What connection can be drawn between traumatic experiences and neural plasticity?

Experiences that induce trauma can lead to significant changes in brain structure and function.

What concepts do scientific research principles emphasize?

The importance of empirical evidence and objectivity in understanding phenomena.

How can misinterpretations arise in personal inquiries?

Through pitfalls such as inaccuracies in observation and personal biases.

What are the major differences in emotional processing between genders according to psychological studies?

Women might express emotions more openly, while men may face societal pressures that influence emotional responses.