Myers' Psychology Vocab Unit 0

The vocabulary/key terms for Unit 0

critical Thinking

Thinking that does not automatically accept arguemnts and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, appreaises the source, discerns hidden biases, evaluares evidence, and assesses conclusions.

hindsight bias

the tendency to believe, after learning an ourcome, that one would have foreseen it. (Also known as the I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon.)

peer reviewers

scientific experts who evaluare a research article’s theory, originality, and accuracy.

theory

an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behavior or events

hypothesis

a testable prediction, often implied by a theory.

falsifiable

the possibility that an idea, hypothesis, or theory can be disproven by observation or experiment

operational definition

a carefully worded statment of the exact procedures (operations) used in a reseatch study. For example human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intellifence test measures. (Also known as operationalization.)

repliation

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding can be reproduced.

case study

a non-experimental technique in which one individial or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles.

naturalistic observation

a non-experimental technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occuring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation.

survey

a non-experimental technique for obtain the self-reported attitues or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group

social desirability bias

bias from people’s responding in way they presume a researcher expects or wishes

self-report bias

bias when people report their behavior inacurately

sampling bias

a flawed sampling process that produces and unrepresentative sample

random sample

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion.

population

all those in a group being studies, from which random samples may be drawn. (Note: Except for national studies, this does not refer to a country’s whole population.)

correlation

a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, amd thus how well either factor predicts the other.

correlation coefficient

a stastical index of the relationship between two variables (from -1.00 to +1.00)

variable

anything that can vary and is feasible and ethical to measure

scatterplot

a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the valuesof two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation (little scatter indicated high correlation).

illusory correlation

perceiving a relationship where none exists, or perceiving a stronger-than-actual relationship

regression toward the mean

the tendency for extreme or unusual scores or events to fall back (regress) toward the average.

experiment

a research method in which an investigator manipulate one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable). By random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant factors.

experimental group

in an experiment, the group exposed to the treatment —- that is, to one version of the independent variable

control group

in an experiment, the group not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating treatment.

random assignment 

assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting difference between the different groups.

single-blind procedure

an experimental procedure in which the research participants are ignorant (blind) about whether they have recevied the treatment or a placebo.

double-blind procedure

an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research particpants have received the treatment or a placebo.

placebo effect

experimental results caused by expectation along; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent

independent variable

in an experiment, the factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.

confounding variable

in an experiment, a factor other than the factor being studied that might influence a study’s results.

experimenter bias

bias caused when researchers may unintentionally influence results to confirm their own beliefs.

dependent variable

in an experiment, the outcome that is measured; the variable that may change when the independent variable is manipulated.

validity

the extent to which a test or experiment measures or predicts what it is supposed to.

quantitative research

a research method that relies on quantifiable. numerical data.

qualitative research

a research method that relies on in-depth, narraive data that are not translated into numbers.

informed consent

giving potential participants enough information about a study to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate.

debriefing

the postexperimental explanation of a study. including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants.

descriptive statistics

numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups; include measures of central tendency and measures of variation.

histogram

a bar graph depicting a frequency distribution.

mode

the most frequently occuring score(s) in a distribution

mean

the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores

median

the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it.

percentile rank

the percentage of scores that are lower than a given score

skewed distribution

a representation of scoresthat lack symmetry around their average value.

inferential statistics

numerical data that allow on to generalize—-to infer from sample data the probability of something being true to a population

meta-analysis

a statistical procedure for analyzing the results of multiple studies to reach an overal conclusion

statistical significance

a statistical statemnt of how likelt it is that a result (such as a difference between samples) occured by chance, assuming there is no difference between the populations being studied.

effect size

the strenght of the relationship between two variables. The larger the effect size, the more one variable can be explained by the other