AP Psych Memory

encoding

the first stage of memory, where perceived information is transformed into a format that can be processed and stored in the brain.

storage

the process of retaining information in the brain over time.

retrieval

the process of accessing and bringing stored information back into conscious awareness.

multi store model

describes memory as a three-part system that includes: Sensory Memory,  Short-term Memory &

Long-term Memory. 

sensory memory

the initial stage of memory where sensory information is stored for a very brief period. It acts as a buffer for stimuli received through the senses and retains impressions of these stimuli for a few seconds at most.

iconic memory

type of sensory memory that briefly holds visual images. It captures a precise copy of a visual scene for a fraction of a second before it fades. 

echoic memory

type of sensory memory that retains auditory information. It holds sounds for about 3-4 seconds, allowing the brain to process spoken language and other auditory stimuli.

short term memory

temporarily holds a small amount of information, typically for about 15 to 30 seconds. It has a limited capacity. 

long term memory

the stage of memory where information is stored indefinitely, with a virtually unlimited capacity. It allows for the long-term retention of knowledge, skills, experiences, and facts.

working memory

form of short-term memory used for temporarily holding and manipulating information. Short-term and long-term memories combine. 

central executive

the control center of working memory. It manages attention, coordinates other memory components, and integrates information from our senses and long-term memory.

phonological loop

component of Working Memory responsible for processing and storing verbal and auditory information.

visuospacial sketchpad

component of Working Memory that handles visual and spatial information. It allows for the temporary storage and manipulation of images and spatial relationships, enabling tasks such as:

long term potentiation

long-lasting increase in signal transmission between neurons that results from their simultaneous activation. LTP is considered one of the major cellular mechanisms that underlies learning and memory.

effortful processing

type of memory encoding that requires active work and attention to embed information into long-term memory.

automatic processing

the unconscious encoding of information about space, time, frequency, and well-learned tasks.

levels of processing model

proposes that the depth at which information is thought about affects how well it is remembered. 

shallow encoding

a basic level of processing that focuses on surface characteristics of information, such as the sound or appearance of words, without engaging with its meaning. 

structural

type of shallow processing that focuses on the physical structure of information. 

phoenemic

shallow processing that focuses on the auditory aspects of information.

deep encoding

involves thoroughly processing information by focusing on its meaning and connecting it to existing knowledge.

chunking

memory strategy that involves grouping individual pieces of information into larger, meaningful units.

categories grouping

method of organizing information by grouping related items together into categories.

hierarchies grouping

organizing information into a system of ranked categories or levels.

mnemonics

techniques used to improve memory. They help in recalling information by associating it with simple cues like patterns, vivid images, or rhymes

method of loci

mnemonic technique that involves associating items to be remembered with specific physical locations

explicit memories

involves conscious recall of facts and experiences

semantic memory

type of explicit memory that involves the recall of general facts and knowledge about the world

episodic memory

type of explicit memory that involves the recollection of personal experiences and specific events

autobiographical memory

type of memory that encompasses events and experiences from an individual's own life

implicit memories

This type of memory does not require conscious thought and is crucial for performing everyday tasks automatically.

procedural memory

type of implicit memory that involves the recall of how to perform tasks or skills automatically

prospective memory

remembering to perform a planned action or recall a planned intention at some future point.

cramming

learning strategy where content is studied intensively over a short period without breaks.

distributed practice

the phenomenon where learning is more effective when study sessions are spaced out over time, rather than crammed into one session

maintenance rehersal

learning technique that involves repeatedly reviewing information to keep it in short-term memory.

elaborative rehersal

memory technique that involves deep processing of information by adding meaning or connecting it to existing knowledge. 

retrieval cues

stimuli that help bring previously learned information to mind.

recall

type of memory retrieval that involves accessing information without the aid of cues (retrieve information from memory spontaneously.)

recognition

type of memory retrieval that involves identifying information when it is presented

context dependent memory

when you remember information better in the same environment where you first learned it.

state dependent memory

the phenomenon where memory retrieval is most effective when an individual is in the same state of consciousness as they were when the memory was formed.

mood congruent memory

the tendency to recall information that is consistent with one's current mood. 

serial position effect

the tendency to remember items at the beginning (primacy effect) and end (recency effect) of a list better than those in the middle

primacy effect

cognitive phenomenon where individuals tend to remember items presented at the beginning of a list better than those that follow.

recency effect

phenomenon observed in memory recall where the most recently presented items in a list are recalled more clearly and accurately than the items in the middle.

testing effect

phenomenon where long-term memory is enhanced when some of the learning period is devoted to retrieving the information through testing

metacognition

the awareness and understanding of one's own thought processes, especially in relation to learning and memory.

forgetting curve

graphical representation of the rate at which memory fades over time. 

encoding failure

occurs when information does not enter long-term memory due to inadequate processing at the time of encoding

proactive interference

occurs when older memories inhibit the ability to learn and remember new information.

retroactive interference

occurs when new learning impairs the recall of previously encoded information. 

tip of the tongue phenomenon

common memory experience where an individual feels confident that they know a word or a name, but cannot immediately recall it.

source amnesia

the inability to remember where, when, or how previously learned information has been acquired (lost context), while retaining the factual knowledge.

anterograde amnesia

memory disorder characterized by an inability to form new memories following the onset of the amnesia, although memories from before the event remain intact.

retrograde amnesia

memory disorder that involves the loss of memories formed before the onset of amnesia.

infantile amnesia

the phenomenon where people cannot recall personal memories from the early years of life, typically before age 3-4.

alzheimers disease

progressive neurological disorder that leads to memory loss, cognitive decline, and behavioral changes. 

repression

distressing thoughts and memories are unconsciously blocked from entering conscious awareness.

constructive memory

the process by which memories are not merely retrieved but actively constructed. 

misinformation effect

happens when new, incorrect information influences how we remember past events.