political systems

Two-round system (TRS)

A majoritarian electoral system that allows for two rounds of elections, where candidates must meet a specified threshold to be elected.

Single Nontransferable Vote (SNTV)

An electoral system in multi-member districts where voters cast a single candidate-centered vote, and candidates with the highest votes win.

Block Vote

A candidate-centered electoral system in multi-member districts where voters have as many votes as there are seats to be filled.

Alternative Vote

A preferential voting system in single-member districts where voters rank candidates, and votes are redistributed until a candidate secures a majority.

Mixed Electoral System

An electoral system that combines elements of majoritarian and proportional representation to balance proportionality and majoritarian advantages.

Presidential System

A system of governance where the executive branch is headed by a president, who is elected and independent of the legislature.

Parliamentary System

A governmental system where the executive depends on legislative majority support and includes a prime minister and cabinet.

Proportional Representation (PR) Systems

Electoral systems designed to translate votes into seats proportionally, employing quotas or divisors for seat allocation.

Majoritarian Systems

Electoral systems where the majority or most votes win, including SMDP, two-round systems, and alternative voting.

Closed Party List

An electoral method where voters select a party, and the party determines which candidates win seats based on vote share.

Open Party List

An electoral system allowing voters to express preferences for individual candidates from a party list.

Free Party List

An electoral method that allows voters to cast votes for candidates across various party lists.

Supreme Court Justices

Judges serving on the highest court, responsible for constitutional review and law interpretation.

Constitutional Review

The authority of the judiciary to assess whether laws or actions comply with the constitution.

Judicial Independence

The degree to which the judiciary functions free from interference by other government branches.

Duverger’s Law

A principle stating that single-member district plurality systems favor two-party systems, while PR systems encourage multi-party systems.

Party System

The configuration and interaction of political parties within a political system, influenced by electoral rules and frameworks.

Electoral Threshold

The minimum percentage of votes required for a party to gain representation, affecting legislative fragmentation.

District Magnitude

The number of representatives elected per electoral district, with larger magnitudes increasing proportionality.

(Un)codified Constitution

Codified: Written in a single document; Uncodified: Based on traditions and legal texts.

Common Law

A legal system based on case law and judicial precedents rather than codified statutes.

Civil Law

A legal system grounded in comprehensive legal codes and statutes.

Principal-Agent Problem

A delegation challenge where the agent’s actions diverge from the principal's best interest.

Iron Triangle

A policy-making relationship involving close cooperation between interest groups, bureaucrats, and legislators.

New Public Management

A reform movement focused on promoting efficiency, accountability, and market principles in public sector management.

Rent-Seeking

Efforts to gain economic advantages through political influence without adding societal value.

Federalism

A governance system where power is divided between central and regional governments.

Devolution

The transfer of powers from a central government to regional or local governments.

Decentralization

The distribution of decision-making authority to lower levels of government.

Symmetrical/Congruent Federalism

Symmetrical: All units have equal powers; Congruent: Subunits resemble the national demographic.

Coming-Together Federalism

A voluntary agreement among independent entities forming a federal state.

Holding-Together Federalism

A central government’s strategy to decentralize power to maintain unity in a diverse nation.

Bicameral Legislature

A legislative system consisting of two chambers, typically an upper and lower house.

Unicameral Legislature

A legislative system with a single chamber.

Confessional Cleavages

Divisions rooted in religious or confessional differences.

Post-Materialist Cleavages

Societal divisions based on values such as environmentalism and self-expression.

Secular-Clerical Cleavages

Divisions based on secular and religious perspectives in governance.

Cross-Cutting Cleavages

Cleavages that intersect multiple social divisions, reducing polarization.

Reinforcing Cleavages

Cleavages that align along similar social divisions, increasing polarization.

Effective Number of Parties

A measure accounting for the number and size of political parties.

Checks and Balances

A system ensuring no government branch exceeds its authority.

Chewas and Tumbukas

Ethnic groups exemplifying the impact of societal cleavages on political coalitions.

Coalition Government

A government formed by multiple parties cooperating when no single party achieves a majority.