political systems

1.     Two-round system (TRS)

a.     A majoritarian electoral system that allows for two rounds of elections. Candidates or parties are automatically elected in the first round if they meet a specified threshold, typically an absolute majority. If no candidate achieves this, a second round is conducted. Variants include:

                                               i.     Majority-Runoff TRS: The top two candidates compete in a runoff election if no one achieves an absolute majority in the first round.

                                             ii.     Majority-Plurality TRS: Allows all candidates meeting a preordained vote threshold to participate in the second round.

2.     Single Nontransferable Vote (SNTV)

a.     An electoral system where voters cast a single, candidate-centered vote in multi-member districts. Candidates with the highest votes win. Criticized for:

                                               i.     Weakening parties and encouraging factionalism.

                                             ii.     Promoting clientelistic behavior and patronage systems.

                                            iii.     Favoring incumbents and well-organized parties.

3.     Block Vote

a.     A candidate-centered electoral system used in multimember districts. Voters have as many votes as there are seats to be filled, and the candidates with the most votes win.

4.     Alternative Vote

a.     A preferential voting system in single-member districts. Voters rank candidates by preference. If no candidate wins an absolute majority initially, the least popular candidate is eliminated, and their votes are redistributed to the remaining candidates, based on voter preferences, until one candidate secures a majority.

5.     Mixed Electoral System

a.     Combines elements of majoritarian and proportional representation systems to balance proportionality and majoritarian advantages.

6.     Presidential System

a.     A system of governance where the executive branch is headed by a president who is both the head of state and government. The president is directly elected and independent of the legislature, which cannot dismiss the executive via a vote of no confidence.

7.     Parliamentary System

a.     A system where the government (executive branch) depends on the support of a legislative majority to exist. The government typically includes a prime minister and a cabinet. Legislative confidence, demonstrated through votes like "votes of no confidence," is central.

8.     Proportional Representation (PR) Systems

a.     Electoral systems designed to proportionally translate votes into seats. Typically employs quotas or divisors for seat allocation. Variants include:

  1. List PR: Parties present a list of candidates, and seats are allocated based on vote share. Types include closed, open, and free party lists.

10.  Majoritarian Systems

a.     Electoral systems where the candidates or parties with the majority or most votes win. Variants include SMDP, two-round systems, and alternative voting.

11.  Closed Party List

a.     Voters select a party rather than individual candidates. The party determines the rank order of candidates, and the highest-ranked candidates win seats based on the party's vote share.

12.  Open Party List

a.     Voters can influence which candidates from a party list are elected by expressing preference votes for individuals.

13.  Free Party List

a.     Allows voters to vote for candidates across different party lists (cross-list voting).

14.  Supreme Court Justices

a.     Judges serving on the highest court in the judiciary, often tasked with constitutional review and interpreting laws.

15.  Constitutional Review

a.     The judiciary's authority to assess whether laws or actions comply with the constitution.

16.  Judicial Independence

a.     The degree to which the judiciary is free from interference by other branches of government or external pressures, ensuring unbiased rulings.

17.  Duverger’s Law

a.     A principle suggesting that single-member district plurality systems favor two-party systems, while proportional representation systems encourage multi-party systems.

18.  Party System

a.     The configuration and interaction of political parties within a political system, influenced by electoral rules, voter alignment, and institutional frameworks.

19.  Electoral Threshold

a.     The minimum percentage of votes a party must secure to gain representation. High thresholds reduce legislative fragmentation.

20.  District Magnitude

a.     The number of representatives elected per electoral district. Larger magnitudes increase proportionality.

21.  (Un)codified Constitution

  1. Codified Constitution: Written in a single, organized document.

  2. Uncodified Constitution: Based on traditions, precedents, and scattered legal texts.

22.  Common Law

a.     A legal system based on case law and judicial precedents rather than codified statutes.

23.  Civil Law

a.     A legal system grounded in comprehensive legal codes and statutes.

24.  Principal-Agent Problem

a.     A challenge in delegation where the agent's actions deviate from the principal's best interest due to differing objectives or asymmetric information.

25.  Iron Triangle

a.     A policy-making relationship involving close cooperation between interest groups, bureaucrats, and legislators.

26.  New Public Management

a.     A reform movement promoting efficiency, accountability, and market-oriented practices in public sector management.

27.  Rent-Seeking

a.     The effort to gain economic advantage through political influence without adding value to society.

28.  Federalism

a.     A system of governance where power is divided between central and regional governments.

29.  Devolution

a.     The delegation of powers from the central government to regional or local governments.

30.  Decentralization

a.     The distribution of decision-making authority to lower levels of government or organizations.

31.  Symmetrical/Congruent Federalism

  1. Symmetrical Federalism: All subnational units have equal powers.

  2. Congruent Federalism: Subunits have a similar demographic makeup to the nation.

32.  Coming-Together Federalism

a.     A voluntary agreement where previously independent entities form a federal state.

33.  Holding-Together Federalism

a.     A central government decentralizes power to maintain unity in a diverse nation.

34.  Bicameral Legislature

a.     A legislative system with two chambers, typically an upper and lower house.

35.  Unicameral Legislature

a.     A legislative system with a single chamber.

36.  Confessional Cleavages

a.     Divisions based on religious or confessional differences.

37.  Post-Materialist Cleavages

a.     Societal divisions rooted in values like environmentalism, self-expression, and quality of life, rather than material needs.

38.  Secular-Clerical Cleavages

a.     Divisions between secular and religious perspectives on governance and policy.

39.  Cross-Cutting Cleavages

a.     Cleavages that intersect multiple social divisions, reducing polarization.

40.  Reinforcing Cleavages

a.     Cleavages that align along the same social divisions, increasing polarization.

41.  Effective Number of Parties

a.     A measure that accounts for the number and size of political parties, reflecting party system competitiveness.

42.  Checks and Balances

a.     A system ensuring that no branch of government exceeds its authority, maintaining accountability.

43.  Chewas and Tumbukas

a.     Ethnic groups used to illustrate the impact of societal cleavages on political coalitions.

44.  Coalition Government

a.     A government formed by multiple political parties cooperating, often when no single party achieves a majority.