History A-level Edexcel - Russia 1917-1991: from Lenin to Yeltsin - Theme 4:4a

Soviet Constitution of 1977

stated that all Soviet citizens had the right to work, rest and leisure, health protection, care in old age and sickness, housing, education, and cultural benefits

Marxism - opinion on work

- Marxism is a theory on work

- one of Marx's central critiques was that capitalist economic don't reward work and workers stay poor because they own no property

- capitalists viewed as parasites as they lived off work of working class without contributing to well-being

Labour market under Lenin - Declaration of the Rights of Toiling and Exploited People (1918)

- abolished private ownership of land

- introduced universal labour duty

Labour market under Lenin (1917-18)

- 1917 revolutions had caused economic chaos so increased unemployment

- Treaty of Brest-Litovsk ceased war production so unemployment increased

- labour discipline and collaboration stressed

Labour market under Lenin (civil war)

- collapse of industrial production during civil war - factory workers drifted to countryside

- food shortages in countryside after war so drift of workers to cities

Labour market under Lenin (war communism)

- conscription and compulsory employment introduced

- resources allocated according to value of work and rations allocated according to occupation

- rations organised by Prodraspred and based on class (working class received most)

- workers also received work card, dining halls, laundries, creches

- compulsory works and gov provision unsuccessful as unsustainable and lack of resources

- factory closures+food security meant WC failed to create full employment system

Arteli

a group of workers, usually of the same trade, who offered their services as a group and were paid as a group

- led by older members, who arranged jobs and distributed pay

- government did not encourage their use

Labour market under Lenin (NEP)

- return to state capitalism with goal of promoting economic growth

- unemployment problematic 1921-24 as red army demobilised, urban workers returned, government factory workers reduced, administrators sacked

- women more unemployed than men

- benefit system introduced - social insurance, 1922 labour law, education for urban workers

- social insurance - disability/maternity/unemployment/medical benefits only for urban workers

- skilled workers had increased job security under NEP

- use of arteli under NEP

- wage differentials grew under NEP

- unemployment problematic but urban workers had more benefits

- benefits available through trade unions/local soviets

Lenin's overall view and achievements on employment

- believed right to work core communist principle

- needed to solve unemployment

- full employment not achieved under Lenin

Lenin's overall view and achievements on social security

- introduced rudimentary welfare provisions including workers' insurance and support for orphans/widows

- civil war and famine meant social security was limited in practise

Labour market under Stalin (FYP)

- full employment achieved due to rapid industrialisation

- lack of modern technology increased labour demand

- more urban workers due to collectivisation

- labour shortages in 1932

- working conditions declined

- harsh labour discipline (lateness criminalised, unions lost right to negotiate, strikes banned)

- workers received food rations, had electricity access, increased in healthcare provision

- benefits available through factories/collective farms

- peasants benefited less than workers (no rations, food scarce)

- party members prioritised with benefits and food

Labour market under Stalin (1945-53)

- industrial workforce grew

- food shortages limited benefits

- healthcare significantly improved (more vaccines, doctors)

- despite improved healthcare, health of people didn't improve as food shortages/poor housing/poverty/poor sanitation

Labour market under Stalin (impact of full employment on workers)

- divisions in workplace between skilled workers and new peasant recruits

- trade union restrictions - poor working conditions

- Oct 1930 - unemployment benefit cancelled - no social insurance

- low productivity - uninterrupted work used

- labour shortages so lots of switching jobs --> passport system introduced + food rations distributed in workplace

- wage differentials increased to reward skilled workers and discourage them moving jobs

- 1934 - piecework rates expanded

- honours and medals used to motivate workforce

- model workers e.g. Alexei Stakhanov

- increase in absenteeism as restrictions on workers changing jobs - absenteeism made criminal in 1939

Stalin's overall view and achievements on employment

- ensured full employment in 1930s due to FYPs

- labour discipline strictly enforced

Stalin's overall view and achievements on social security

- 1936 constitution guaranteed right to work, rest and social security

- state pensions, sick pay and maternity cover expanded

- social support tied to productive work

Housing under Lenin

- 1917/18 - confiscating rich houses, partitioning them and renting them to workers' families

- during Civil War, authorised destruction of houses to provide timber for fuel

- housing building restarted after civil war

- under NEP, urban housing denationalised, property redistribution initially outlawed

- 1923-24 - large town houses socialised

- church property nationalised, priests evicted

- rent reintroduced in 1921

- constructivist housing built

Housing under Stalin

- urbanisation in FYPs increased demand for workers's housing without resources to meet it

- Kommunalka -communal apartments where entire families shared one room and bathrooms+kitchens shared

- rented housing cheap but lacked privacy

- new factory towns had dire housing

- peasants on collectives had to provide for own housing

- problem exacerbated by WW2 damage

- housing remained low priority under 4th and 5th FYP

- housing on collective farms focused on after WW2

Social benefits from workplace

- by 1930s, cheap food in workforce canteens

- work clothes free

Social benefits from trade unions

- organise sports facilities, meetings and film shows

- 2 weeks paid holiday organised

- sick pay

Healthcare

- contained epidemics

- compulsory vaccination programme to deal with cholera epidemic (1921)

- lice-spread typhus issue 1918-20 - 'either lice will defeat socialism or socialism will defeat lice'

- many doctors had fled after revolution

- increase number of training places and hospital beds

- sanitation taken seriously

- patients had to pay for medicines but at subsidised rate

- women entering medical profession

Developed socialism

A term used by Communist leaders to describe the socialist accomplishments of their societies, such as nationalised industry, collective agriculture, and extensive social welfare programs.

Social stability under developed socialism (1953-85) - full employment

- continued under Khrushchev and Brezhnev

- aim was increased standard of living and production of consumer goods

- increase in real wages --> more spending power

- low wage differentials

Social stability under developed socialism (1953-85) - job security

- difficult to dismiss workers who wasn't good at job

- managers ignored low standards of work discipline

- labour turnover high

- minimum wage introduced (1956)

- working week reduced in 1957

- number of paid holiday days increased

Social stability under developed socialism (1953-85) - improved material benefits

- greater availability of consumer goods

- 9th FYP (1971-75) set higher growth rate for consumer goods than heavy industry

Social stability under developed socialism (1953-85) - nomenklatura system

- state was employer of vast majority of population

- internal passport and dwelling permit system - easier if you were educated, had to become party activist

- ideological student at party school useful for promotions

- party membership grew

- advancements depended on having recommendation from sponsor within party

- increase in nepotism e.g. Khrushchev's son-in-law head of Ivestiya

Social stability under developed socialism (1953-85) - education system

- in order to gain good jobs and social status, educational qualifications required

- boys and girls had equality of access to education

Social stability under developed socialism (1953-85) - youth groups

- opportunity to mould youth

- octoberists - pioneers - Komsomol

Social stability under developed socialism (1953-85) - provisions and range of social security benefits

- pensions, maternity benefits, housing

- 1956 - pension scheme expanded and retirement age reduced

- pensions still low

- peasants didn't receive pension until Brezhnev

- 1961 - free lunches in schools/offices/factories, free public transport, full pensions and healthcare for farmers

Social stability under developed socialism (1953-85) - housing

- Khrushchev had extensive housing programme: halted new gov and communal buildings, invested in new materials and built mass cheap housing (Khrushchyovka)

- lots of housing produced but often poor quality and drab

Social stability under developed socialism (1953-85) - healthcare

- quality improved

- healthcare in countryside improved

- polyclinics provided all-purpose healthcare

- worker given time off to see doctor

- sanatoria used

- best healthcare in major cities e.g. Moscow

- in 1988, some regional hospitals didn't have heating/water

Social stability under developed socialism (1953-85) - living conditions in countryside

- increased agricultural investment under Khrushchev and Brezhnev

- incomes of collective farmers increased in 1966

Social stability under developed socialism (1953-85) - the 'social contract' under Brezhnev

- Brezhnev's focus was promotion of stable society

- gov promised rising living standard and benefits in return for obedience and conformity

- guaranteed job security, low prices for essential goods, thriving second economy without gov intervention, social benefits, social mobility

- living standards significantly rose - subsidised rent, free electricity and water, healthcare and pensions

- social contract succeeded in promoting social stability but led to stagnation

Social stability under developed socialism (1953-85) - stagnation

- full employment led to economic inefficiencies and labour shortages

- female employment rising but women refused labour intensive jobs

- soviet health declined due to alcoholism

Khrushchev's overall view and achievements on employment

- maintained full employment

- wanted to improve living conditions through shorter hours and better workplace conditions

- promoted decentralisation and increased technical skills training

Khrushchev's overall view and achievements on social security

- expanded pensions, housing, healthcare

- introduced state benefits for peasants

- more emphasis on living standards

Brezhnev's overall view and achievements on employment

- maintained full employment but led to labour inefficiencies

- 'socialist obligation to work' concept remained

Brezhnev's overall view and achievements on social security

- expanded welfare state: pensions, housing, healthcare

- introduced state family allowances

- welfare used to promote stability and loyalty

Social instability - uprisings

- uprising against soviets in Hungary in 1956 - military intervened

- military intervened in Czechoslovakia in 1968 to quell unrest

- popular unrest in Poland in 1980 after martial law to prop up communist regime

Temirtau protest (1959)

- industrial centre in Kazakhstan

- Komsomol members encouraged to go to town but enthusiasm dented by living conditions and that East German and Polish workers being paid more

- workers burnt down workplace canteen and hung local police chief

- KGB troops used to restore order

Protests over food prices (1962)

- government increased price of meat + dairy products - At Novocherkassk, local factory manager reduced wages at same time

- workers blamed government and Khrushchev - 'Cut up Khrushchev for sausages'

- members of presidium were sent to town to investigate

- Extra food supplies rushed to area to quell further trouble.

Further strikes and unrest

- over food shortages in Sverdlovsk (1969) and Gorki (1980)

- unrest over poor housing provision occurred in Kiev (1969)

- situations escalated as local police used clumsy actions

- incidents spontaneous and improvised demonstrations

- Free Trade Union Association set up in 1977 - represented real grievances of Soviet workers- organisation's leader, Vladimir Klebanov, dismissed from job and evicted from flat

Terrorist actions

- 1977 - bomb on Moscow Metro killing sevral passengers

- 1969 - Brezhnev assassination attempt - assassin mentally unstable

Problems in soviet society (1950-80)

- WW2 killed many young men so lack of father figures and role models --> high divorce rate

- alcoholism

- hooliganism - young thugs, 'principles of soviet state and law' introduced, stilyagi gangs

How significant was employment for the promotion of a stable Soviet society in the years 1953-85? - 2018 paper

Significant:

- full employment led to real wage increases and low wage differentials contributing to stability

- conditions of employment promoted stability - minimum wage (1956) and shorter working week (1957)

- means of promotion encouraged loyalty to system and hence stability - nomenklatura

Not-significant:

- full employment didn't guarantee contentment - high labour turnover, Temirtau protest (1959)

Other factors significant:

- healthcare provision stabilised society

- Khrushchev's extensive housing programme

- state welfare spending - pensions, maternity benefits