AP Lang: Literary & Rhetorical Devices

Valid argument

An argument is valid if the conclusion logically follows from the premises. Basically, whenever the premises are true, the conclusion has to be true as well.
ex. 1. Ralph is a dog. · 2. No dogs are allowed on the roller-coaster. · 3. Therefore, Ralph is not allowed on the rollercoaster.

Active Voice

The subject of the sentence performs the action. This is a more direct and preferred style of writing in most cases.
ex. Pam drives the car.

Passive Voice

When the subject of the sentence receives the action.
ex. The car is driven by Pam.

Allusion

an indirect reference to something (usually a literary text, although it can be other things commonly known, such as plays, songs, historical events) with which the reader is supposed to be familiar
ex. I'm Juliet to your Romeo. (alludes to William Shakespeare)

Alter Ego

A character that is used by the author to speak the author's own thoughts; when an author speaks directly to the audience through a character.
ex. Bruce Wayne, whose alter ego is Batman

Anecdote

A brief recounting of a relevant episode. Anecdotes are often inserted into fictional or non fictional texts as a way of developing a point or injecting humor
ex. Back in my day I had to walk three miles to the watering hole just to brush my teeth.

Antecedent

The word, phrase, or clause referred to by a pronoun. The AP language exam occasionally asks for the antecedent of a given pronoun in a long, complex sentence or in a group of sentences.
ex. Chelsey finished her presentation, "Chelsey" is the antecedent and "her" is the pronoun.

Classicism

Art or literature characterized by a realistic view of people and the world; sticks to traditional themes and structures (see romanticism)

Comic Relief

when a humorous scene is inserted into a serious story, in order to lighten the mood somewhat.
ex. In frozen, Anna finally reaches her sister's castle and is scared to see how her sister will react, in the back Olaf says "why isn't she knocking?...do you think she knows how to knock?", this breaks the tension.

Diction

Word choice, particularly as an element of style. Different types of words have significant effects on meaning.
ex. In response to a request that you do something, formal diction might sound like, "I will address that issue right away." Alternatively, using informal diction, the response would be more casual like, "You got it."

Colloquial

Ordinary or familiar type of conversation.
ex. words (such as "y'all" or "gonna" or "wanna"), phrases (such as "old as the hills" and "graveyard dead")

Colloquialism

A common or familiar type of saying, similar to an adage or an aphorism.
ex. proverbs and aphorisms ("You only live once.") or idiomatic expressions ("You've hit the nail on the head." "She chickened out.")

Connotation

Rather than the dictionary definition (denotation), the associations suggested by a word. Implied meaning rather than literal meaning.
ex. blue is a color, but it is also a word used to describe a feeling of sadness, as in: "She's feeling blue."

Denotation

The literal, explicit meaning of a word, without its connotations
ex. Trevor is a bull. (There is a literal bull named Trevor.)

Jargon

The diction used by a group which practices a similar profession or activity.
ex. "not everyone understands the technical jargon they use"

Vernacular

1. Language or dialect of a particular country.
2. Language or dialect of a regional clan or group.
3. Plain everyday speech
ex. grinder (New England) for sandwich or pop (Midwest) for soda.

Didactic

A term used to describe fiction, nonfiction or poetry that teaches a specific lesson or moral or provides a model of correct behavior or thinking
ex. the Bible can also be seen as didactic literature because its primary purpose is to persuade and teach readers to live moral lives.

Adage

A folk saying with a lesson.
Similar to aphorism and colloquialism
ex. Better late than never or Actions speak louder than words

Allegory

A story, fictional or non fictional, in which characters, things, and events represent qualities or concepts. The interaction of these characters, things, and events is meant to reveal an
abstraction or a truth.
ex. in the story, the fisherman uses a sinking boat as an allegory for a bad marriage; if you ignore the leaks for a while, you both drown.

Aphorism

A terse statement which expresses a general truth or moral principle. An aphorism can be a memorable summation of the author's point.
ex. "An apple a day keeps the doctor away." or "Eat to live; don't live to eat."

Ellipsis

The deliberate omission of a word or phrase from prose done for effect by the author. The term ellipsis is related to ellipse, which is the three periods used to show omitted text in a quotation
ex. In the baseball game, our team scored four homeruns, the other team, only two...in this example, the words "homeruns" is left out of the second part of the sentence.

Euphemism

A more agreeable or less offensive substitute for generally unpleasant words or concepts. Sometimes they are used for political correctness. Sometimes a euphemism is used to exaggerate correctness to add humor.
ex. He's not poor- he's economically disadvantaged. or The car isn't used- it's certified pre-owned.

Figurative Language

"Figurative Language" is the opposite of "Literal Language." Literal language is writing that makes complete sense when you take it at face value. "Figurative Language" is the opposite:
writing that is not meant to be taken literally
ex. The boy was as brave as a lion in the jungle. or The new teacher is as tall as a giraffe.

Analogy

An analogy is a comparison of one pair of variables to a parallel set of variables. When a writer uses an analogy, he or she argues that the relationship between the first pair of variables is the same as the relationship between the second pair of variables. Similes and metaphors are sometimes also analogies
ex. "Finding that lost dog will be like finding a needle in a haystack." or "Life is like a box of chocolates" from forrest gump.

Hyperbole

Exaggeration.
ex. I'm so hungry, I could eat a horse. or I've told you this 20,000 times.

Idiom

A common, often used expression that doesn't make sense if you take it literally.
ex. hang in there or let someone off the hook

Metaphor

Making an implied comparison, not using "like," as," or other such words.
ex. Life is a highway. or Her eyes were diamonds.

Extended metaphor

When the metaphor is continued later in the written work.
ex. You're a snake! Everything you hiss out of your mouth is a lie. You frighten children, and you have no spine."

Metonymy

Replacing an actual word or idea, with a related word or concept. Metonymy is often used with body parts.
ex. Dish as a substitute for a whole plate of food. or Hand as a substitute for assistance.

Synecdoche

A kind of metonymy when a whole is represented by naming one of its parts, or vice versa.
ex. All hands on deck!" — uses "hands" to signify the whole sailors. or "Nice wheels!" — uses "wheels" to designate a whole car."

Simile

Using words such as "like" or "as" to make a direct comparison between two very different things.
ex. "pretty like a flower" or "bright as the sun"

Synesthesia

a description involving a "crossing of the senses."
ex. Synesthesia is when you hear music, but you see shapes. Or you hear a word or a name and instantly see a color.

Personification:

Giving human-like qualities to something that is not human.
ex. "The sun smiled down on us." or "The sun smiled down on us."

Foreshadowing

When an author gives hints about what will occur later in a story.
ex. if a character mentions offhandedly that bad things always happen to them in autumn, then the observant reader will be alert when the leaves in the story begin to fall.

Genre

The major category into which a literary work fits. The basic divisions of literature are prose, poetry, and drama. However, genres can be subdivided as well.
primary genres: autobiography, biography, diaries, criticism, essays, and journalistic, political, scientific, and nature writing.

Gothic

Writing characterized by gloom, mystery, fear and/or death. Also refers to an architectural style of the middle ages, often seen in cathedrals of this period.
ex. Edgar Allen Poe wrote gothic fiction such as "The Raven"

Imagery

Word or words that create a picture in the reader's mind. Usually this involves the five senses. Authors often use imagery in conjunction with metaphors, similes, or figures of speech.
ex. "The warden's keys clanked as he walked past the cells." (sound) or "The air smelled salty, reminding me that the beach is nearby." (smell)

Invective

A long, emotionally violent, attack using strong, abusive language.
ex. A woman had hurled racist invective at the family.

Irony

When the opposite of what you expect to happen does.
ex. You laughed at a person who slipped stepping on a banana peel and the next thing you know, you slipped too.

Verbal irony

When you say something and mean the opposite/something different. If your voice tone is bitter, it's called sarcasm.
ex. if it were a cold, rainy gray day, you might say, "What a beautiful day!"

Dramatic irony

When the audience of a drama, play, movie, etc. knows something that the character doesn't and would be surprised to find out.
ex. If you're watching a movie about the Titanic and a character leaning on the balcony right before the ship hits the iceberg says, "It's so beautiful I could just die,"

Situational irony

Found in the plot (or story line) of a book, story, or movie. Sometimes it makes you laugh because it's funny how things turn out.
ex. a fire station burning down, or someone posting on Twitter that social media is a waste of time

Juxtaposition

Placing things side by side for the purposes of comparison. Authors often use juxtaposition of ideas or examples in order to make a point.
ex. Night and day or justice and revenge

Mood

The atmosphere created by the literature and accomplished through word choice (diction). Syntax is often a creator of mood since word order, sentence length and strength and complexity also affect pacing and therefore mood. Setting, tone, and events can all affect the mood.
ex. Calm and tranquil, Eerie and uncanny, Light-hearted, Tense and anxious.

Motif

a recurring idea in a piece of literature.
ex. if a story features repeated images of handwashing, mopping floors, and refreshing rain, then these images of cleansing water are a recurring literary motif.

Oxymoron

When apparently contradictory terms are grouped together and suggest a paradox -
ex. "wise fool,"

Pacing

The speed or tempo of an author's writing. Writers can use a variety of devices (syntax, polysyndeton, anaphora, meter) to change the pacing of their words.

Paradox

A seemingly contradictory situation which is actually true.
ex. "This is the beginning of the end." or "Save money by spending it."

Parallelism

(Also known as parallel structure or balanced sentences.) Sentence construction which places equal grammatical constructions near each other, or repeats identical grammatical patterns. Parallelism is used to add emphasis, organization, or sometimes pacing to writing.
ex. "It takes one to know one" or " No pain, no gain"

Anaphora

Repetition of a word, phrase, or clause at the beginning of two or more sentences or clauses in a row. This is a deliberate form of repetition and helps make the writer's point more coherent.
ex. "Go big or go home." or "Give me liberty or give me death."

Chiasmus

When the same words are used twice in succession, but the second time, the order of the words is reversed. Also called antimetabole.
ex. "Pleasure's a sin, and sometimes sin's a pleasure."

Antithesis

Two opposite or contrasting words, phrases, or clauses, or even ideas, with parallel structure.
ex. "Hope for the best; prepare for the worst" or "Keep your mouth closed and your eyes open."

Zuegma (Syllepsis)

When a single word governs or modifies two or more other words, and the meaning of the first word must change for each of the other words it governs or modifies.
ex. "She broke his car and his heart."

Parenthetical Idea

Parentheses are used to set off an idea from the rest of the sentence. It is almost considered an aside...a whisper, and should be used sparingly for effect, rather than repeatedly. Parentheses can also be used to set off dates and numbers.
ex. "Tara, although she comes from a hot climate, hates hot weather." or "Timothy, who lives near Stonehenge, goes to church regularly."

Parody

An exaggerated imitation of a serious work for humorous purposes. It borrows words or phrases from an original, and pokes fun at it. This is also a form of allusion, since it is referencing a previous text, event, etc. Do not confuse with satire.
ex. Austin Powers (character parody of James Bond)

Persona

The fictional mask or narrator that tells a story. Do not confuse with alter-ego.

Poetic device

A device used in poetry to manipulate the sound of words, sentences or lines.
ex. alliteration, onomatopoeia, personification

Alliteration

The repetition of the same consonant sound at the beginning of words.
ex. Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers

Assonance

The repetition of identical or similar vowel sounds.
ex. His tender heir might bear his memory" (William Shakespeare). The "eh" sound in "tender," "heir," "bear," and "memory" is an assonant sound.

Consonance

The repetition of the same consonant sound at the end of words or within words.
ex. "Hickory dickory dock" or "pitter patter"

Onomatopoeia

The use of a word which imitates or suggests the sound that the thing makes.
ex. snap, whoosh, crack

Internal rhyme

When a line of poetry contains a rhyme within a single line.
ex. There is FUN to be DONE or There is GLUE in my SHOE.

Slant rhyme

When a poet creates a rhyme, but the two words do not rhyme exactly - they are merely similar.
ex. if ever two were one, then surely WE
if ever man were loved by wife, then THEE

End rhyme

When the last word of two different lines of poetry rhyme.
ex. the deepest night
burning bright

Rhyme Scheme

The pattern of a poem's end rhymes.
For example, a rhyme scheme of a b a b c d c d:
Basically every "a" line will rhyme and every "b" and "c" will as well

Stressed and unstressed syllables

In every word of more than one syllable, one of the syllables is stressed, or said with more force than the other syllable(s).
ex. ahead- "a" is unstressed and "head" is stressed

Meter

a regular pattern to the syllable in lines of poetry

Free Verse

poetry that doesn't have much meter or rhyme

Iambic pentameter

Poetry that is written in lines of 10 syllables, alternating stressed and unstressed syllables.
besically, da DUM, da DUM, da DUM, da DUM, da DUM.

Sonnet

A 14 line poem written in iambic pentameter. Usually divided into three quatrains and a couplet.
ex. "Shall I compare thee to a summer's day? Thou art more lovely and more temperate. Rough winds do shake the darling buds of May, And summer's lease hath all too short a date."

Polysyndeton

When a writer creates a list of items which are all separated by conjunctions. Normally, a conjunction is used only before the last item in a list. Polysyndeton is often used to slow down the pace of the writing and/or add an authoritative tone.
ex. apple AND banana AND orange AND pear AND pineapple

Pun

When a word that has two or more meanings is used in a humorous way.
ex. Let's taco about it

Rhetoric

The art of effective communication. basically the art of persuading
ex. Politicians deliver rallying cries to inspire people to act or Advertisers create catchy slogans to get people to buy products.

Aristotle's Rhetorical Triangle

The relationships, in any piece of writing, between the writer, the audience, and the subject. All analysis of writing is essentially an analysis of the relationships between the points on the triangle.

Rhetorical Question

Question not asked for information but for effect. basically you dont have to answer it

Romanticism

Art or literature characterized by an idealistic, perhaps unrealistic view of people and the world, and an emphasis on nature. Does not rely on traditional themes and structures (see classicism).
ex. romeo and juliet is the idealistic love

Sarcasm

A generally bitter comment that is ironically or satirically worded. However, not all satire and irony are sarcastic. It is the bitter, mocking tone that separates sarcasm from mere verbal irony or satire.
ex. saying "they're really on top of things" to describe a group of people who are very disorganized

Satire

A work that reveals a critical attitude toward some element of life to a humorous effect. It targets human vices and follies, or social institutions and conventions. Good satire usually has three layers: serious on the surface; humorous when you discover that it is satire instead of reality; and serious when you discern the underlying point of the author.
ex. If voting changed anything, they would make it illegal. (This uses sarcasm to undermine democracy.)

Sentence

A sentence is group of words (including subject and verb) that expresses a complete thought.

Appositive

A word or group of words placed beside a noun or noun substitute to supplement its meaning.
ex. "my wife, Dorothy, enjoys musical theater," "Dorothy" is the appositive, with the antecedent "my wife."

Clause

A grammatical unit that contains both a subject and a verb. An independent clause expresses a complete thought and can stand alone as a sentence. A dependent, or subordinate clause cannot stand alone as a sentence and must be accompanied by an independent clause.

Balanced sentence

A sentence in which two parallel elements are set off against each other like equal weights on a scale. Both parts are parallel grammatically. Also called parallelism.

Compound sentence

Contains at least two independent clauses but no dependent
clauses.

Complex sentence

Contains only one independent clause and at least one dependent clause.

Cumulative sentence

(also called a loose sentence) When the writer begins with an
independent clause, then adds subordinate elements. The opposite construction is called a periodic sentence.

Periodic sentence

When the main idea is not completed until the end of the sentence. The writer begins with subordinate elements and postpones the main clause. The opposite construction is called a cumulative sentence.

Simple sentence

Contains only one independent clause.

Declarative sentence

States an idea. It does not give a command or request, nor does it ask a question.

Imperative sentence

Issues a command.

Interrogative sentence

Sentences incorporating interrogative pronouns (what, which,
who, whom, and whose).

Style

The choices in diction, tone, and syntax that a writer makes. Style may be conscious or unconscious.

Symbol

Anything that represents or stands for something else. Usually a symbol is something concrete such as an object, actions, character...that represents something more abstract.

Syntax/sentence variety

Grammatical arrangement of words. This is perhaps one of the most difficult concepts to master. First, a reader should examine the length of sentences (short or long). How does
sentence length and structure relate to tone and meaning. Are they simple, compound, compound-complex sentences? How do they relate to one another? Syntax is the grouping of words, while diction refers to the selection of individual words.

Theme

The central idea or message of a work. The theme may be directly stated in nonfiction works, although not necessarily. It is rarely stated directly in fiction.

Thesis

The sentence or groups of sentences that directly expresses the author's opinion, purpose, meaning, or proposition. It should be short and clear. (also see argument)

Tone

A writer's attitude toward his subject matter revealed through diction, figurative language and organization. To identify tone, consider how the piece would sound if read aloud (or how the author wanted it to sound aloud).

Understatement

The ironic minimizing of fact, understatement presents something as less significant than it is. The effect can frequently be humorous.

Litotes

a particular form of understatement, generated by denying the opposite of the statement which otherwise would be used. Depending on the tone and context of the usage, litotes either
retains the effect of understatement (Hitting that telephone pole certainly didn't do your car any good) or becomes an intensifying expression

Argument

An argument is a piece of reasoning with one or more premises and a conclusion. Essentially, every essay is an argument that begins with the conclusion (the thesis) and then sets up the premises. An argument (or the thesis to an argument) is also sometimes called a claim, a position,
or a stance.
Premise: All Spam is pink
Premise: I am eating Spam
Conclusion: I am eating something that is pink

Premises

Statements offered as reasons to support a conclusion are premises.