PSY 2301 - Midterm 2 (Winter 2026)

Psychopharmacology

The study of how drugs affect the nervous system and behavior.

Psychoactive drug

Substances that act to alter mood, thinking, or behaviors.

Blood-Brain Barrier (BBB)

A barrier that helps prevent most substances, including most drugs, from entering the brain via the bloodstream.

Agonist

A substance that enhances the functioning of a synapse or neurotransmitter.

Antagonist

A substance that blocks or decreases the functioning of a synapse or neurotransmitter.

Drug tolerance

A decrease of a response to a drug over time, requiring a larger dose to achieve the same effect.

Sensitization

Increased responsiveness to successive doses of a drug, also known as reverse tolerance.

First-order kinetics

The rate of drug metabolism that depends on the concentration of the drug in the blood.

Zero-order kinetics

A constant rate of drug clearance that is independent of the blood concentration.

Intravenous injection

A method of drug administration that delivers substances directly into the bloodstream.

HPA-axis

Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, involved in the stress response.

Corticosteroid

Hormones produced by the adrenal cortex, including cortisol, critical in stress responses.

Homeostasis

The body's attempt to maintain a stable internal environment despite external changes.

Excitotoxicity

The pathological process by which neurons are damaged due to excessive activation, commonly associated with glutamate.

Opioid analgesics

Compounds that bind to opioid receptors, providing pain relief and relaxation.

Benzodiazepines

A type of antianxiety agent often prescribed for their calming effects.

Monoamine oxidase (MAO) inhibitors

A class of antidepressants that prevent the breakdown of serotonin to increase its availability.

Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs)

A class of antidepressants that selectively block the reabsorption of serotonin in the brain.

Antipsychotic agents

Medications used to treat disorders characterized by symptoms such as hallucinations and delusions.

Drugs

Chemical substances that alter physiological or psychological processes in the body.

Routes of Drug Administration

Methods used to deliver drugs into the body, e.g., oral, intravenous, and inhalation.

Oral Administration

A method of drug delivery where substances are ingested and absorbed through the gastrointestinal tract.

Area Postrema

A region of the brain responsible for detecting toxins in the blood and triggering vomiting.

Pineal Gland

A small endocrine gland in the brain that produces melatonin, regulating sleep patterns.

Pituitary Gland

The master gland of the endocrine system that releases hormones affecting growth, metabolism, and stress response.

Passive Transport of Drugs across BBB

A process that allows small, nonpolar molecules to cross the blood-brain barrier without the need for energy.

Active Transport across BBB

The process requiring energy to move substances against their concentration gradient across the blood-brain barrier.

Drug Metabolism

The biochemical modification of pharmaceutical substances by living organisms, primarily in the liver.

Drug Excretion

The process of removing drugs and their metabolites from the body, primarily through urine and feces.

Pharmacological Factors

Characteristics of drugs, such as dosage and potency, that influence their effects and efficacy.

Non-Pharmacological Factors

External elements that affect drug response, including psychological and social influences.

Seven Major Stages of Synaptic Transmission

1. Synthesis 2. Storage 3. Release 4. Binding 5. Inactivation 6. Reuptake 7. Recycling.

Metabolic Tolerance

A form of tolerance resulting from increased metabolism of a drug in the liver, requiring higher doses for effect.

Cellular Tolerance

Reduced responsiveness of neurons to a drug, often due to receptor downregulation.

Learned/Behavioral Tolerance

Decreased response to a drug due to behavioral adaptations and compensatory responses.

Cross Tolerance

Tolerance to one drug that extends to another drug, usually due to similar mechanisms.

Anti-Anxiety Agents

Medications mainly used to relieve anxiety symptoms, often benzodiazepines.

Sedative Hypnotics

Drugs that promote sedation and sleep, affecting the central nervous system.

Antipsychotic Agents (First Generation)

Medications like haloperidol that primarily block dopamine receptors, targeting psychosis symptoms.

Antipsychotic Agents (Second Generation)

Medications such as clozapine, acting on multiple neurotransmitter systems, with fewer motor side effects.

Dopamine Hypothesis of Schizophrenia

The concept that excess dopamine activity is a primary factor in schizophrenia symptoms.

Tricyclic Antidepressants

A class of antidepressants that inhibit the reuptake of norepinephrine and serotonin.

Second Generation Antidepressants

Including SSRIs and SNRIs that more selectively target neurotransmitter reuptake mechanisms.

Mood Stabilizers

Medications used to control mood swings, often prescribed for bipolar disorder.

Opioids

A class of drugs that bind to opioid receptors, used primarily for pain relief.

Heroin

An illegal opioid that is derived from morphine, known for its high potential for addiction.

Fentanyl

A powerful synthetic opioid that is significantly stronger than morphine, often used medically for pain.

Naloxone

A medication used to counteract opioid overdoses, rapidly displacing opioids from receptors.

Competitive Inhibitors

Substances that bind to the active site of enzymes, preventing substrate binding and reaction.

Behavioral Stimulants

Stimulant drugs that increase activity in the nervous system, often enhancing alertness and energy.

Cocaine

A powerful stimulant derived from coca leaves, affecting dopamine reuptake and increasing energy and euphoria.

Psychotropics

Drugs that affect mental processes, including mood, thought, perception, or behavior.

Amphetamines

Central nervous system stimulants that increase the levels of certain neurotransmitters.

Methamphetamines

A highly addictive stimulant that affects the central nervous system, with potent effects on mood and energy.

Psychedelic and Hallucinogenic Stimulants

Substances that cause altered perception, mood, and cognitive processes, such as LSD and psilocybin.

Serotoninergic Hallucinogens

Psychedelics that primarily affect serotonin receptors, leading to altered states of consciousness.

Methylated Amphetamines

Modified forms of amphetamines that can vary in potency and effects.

Anticholinergic Hallucinogens

Substances that block acetylcholine receptors, leading to altered perceptions and cognitive function.

Dissociative Anesthetic Hallucinogens

Drugs that create feelings of detachment from the body and environment, such as PCP and ketamine.

Salvinorin A

A potent hallucinogenic compound derived from the Salvia divinorum plant, acting on kappa opioid receptors.

Disinhibition Theory

The concept that drugs may lower inhibitions, leading to increased impulsivity and risk-taking behavior.

Learned/Behavioral Tolerance

Decreased response to a drug due to behavioral adaptations and compensatory responses.

Alcohol/Behavioral Myopia (nearsightedness)

A phenomenon where alcohol consumption leads to a narrowed focus on immediate cues, neglecting long-term consequences.

Excitotoxicity

Neuronal damage resulting from excessive stimulation by neurotransmitters, particularly glutamate.

Hormones

Biochemical substances produced by glands that regulate physiological processes.

Endocrine Gland

Glands that secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream, like the pituitary and adrenal glands.

Hypothalamus

A brain region that regulates many autonomic functions, including hunger, thirst, and stress responses.

Adrenal Glands

Glands that produce hormones such as cortisol and adrenaline, essential for stress responses.

Stress Hormones

Hormones like cortisol and adrenaline that are released during stress, preparing the body for a 'fight or flight' response.

Ending a Stress Response

The processes that help the body return to homeostasis after a stressor has subsided.

How do chemicals pass information from one neuron to another?

Chemicals, primarily neurotransmitters, are released from the presynaptic neuron into the synaptic cleft, where they bind to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron, transmitting signals.

Otto Loewi 1921

Conducted a famous experiment demonstrating that chemical neurotransmitters, specifically acetylcholine, transmit signals between neurons.

Epinephrine

A neurotransmitter also known as adrenaline, primarily involved in the body's 'fight or flight' response.

Acetylcholine

A neurotransmitter that can either excite or inhibit action in muscles and organs, essential for many nerve functions.

Norepinephrine

A neurotransmitter that influences alertness, arousal, and the 'fight or flight' response.

neurotransmitter

Chemicals that transmit signals across the synaptic cleft from one neuron to another.

Electron microscope

A high-resolution imaging tool used to observe the structure of synapses and the arrangement of neurotransmitter receptors.

Chemical synapse

A type of synapse where neurotransmitters are released from the presynaptic neuron to communicate with the postsynaptic neuron.

Electrical synapse

A synapse that allows rapid transmission of signals between neurons via direct electrical connections through gap junctions.

Presynaptic membrane

The membrane of the neuron that releases neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft.

Postsynaptic membrane

The membrane of the receiving neuron that contains receptors for neurotransmitters.

Synaptic cleft

The small gap between the presynaptic and postsynaptic membranes where neurotransmitter release occurs.

Synaptic vesicle

Small membrane-bound structures that contain neurotransmitters and release them into the synaptic cleft.

Storage granule

Structures in the presynaptic terminal that store neurotransmitters until they are released.

Postsynaptic receptor

Proteins on the postsynaptic membrane that bind to neurotransmitters and trigger a response in the neuron.

Gap junction

Specialized connections that allow electrical signals to pass directly from one neuron to another.

Four steps of neurotransmission

1. Synthesis and storage of neurotransmitter, 2. Neurotransmitter release, 3. Receptor site activation, 4. Termination of action.

Synthesis and storage

The process a neuron undergoes to create neurotransmitters from precursors and pack them into vesicles.

Neurotransmitter released

The process whereby neurotransmitters are released from the synaptic vesicles into the synaptic cleft.

Receptor site activation

The binding of released neurotransmitters to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron, leading to a biological response.

Ionotropic receptor

A receptor that opens ion channels directly upon neurotransmitter binding, resulting in rapid postsynaptic effects.

Metabotropic receptor

A receptor that, upon neurotransmitter binding, activates a series of intracellular signaling cascades via G proteins.

Second messenger metabotropic receptors

Receptors that initiate secondary signaling pathways within the cell after the activation of G proteins.

Varieties of synapses

Different types of synaptic connections, including chemical, electrical, excitatory, and inhibitory synapses.

Type 1 synapse

A synapse that promotes the generation of action potentials in the postsynaptic neuron, typically using excitatory neurotransmitters.

Type 2 synapse

A synapse that suppresses action potential generation in the postsynaptic neuron, typically using inhibitory neurotransmitters.

Criteria for identifying neurotransmitters

1. Synthesis in the neuron, 2. Release in response to action potentials, 3. Receptor interaction, 4. Termination of action.

Four classes of neurotransmitters

1. Small molecule transmitters, 2. Peptide transmitters, 3. Lipid transmitters, 4. Gaseous transmitters.

Small molecule transmitters

Neurotransmitters like acetylcholine, dopamine, and glutamate that are synthesized from dietary precursors.

Peptide transmitters

Long chains of amino acids that function as neurotransmitters, often modulating the effects of smaller neurotransmitters.