Cinnamon roll Flash Cards

Learning

A relatively enduring change in behavior, resulting from experience.

Nonassociative learning

Responding after repeated exposure to a single stimulus or event.

Associative learning

Linking two stimuli or events that occur together.

Observational learning

Acquisition or modification of a behavior after exposure to another individual performing that behavior.

Modeling

Imitating a behavior seen in others.

Positive reinforcement

A pleasurable stimulus presented or administered after a behavior.

Negative reinforcement

An aversive stimulus removed or postponed after a behavior.

Positive punishment

Administration of an aversive stimulus following a behavior that decreases the probability of that behavior occurring in the future.

Negative punishment

Removal of an appetitive stimulus following a behavior, which decreases the frequency of that behavior in the future.

Habituation

Decrease in behavioral response after repeated exposure to a stimulus.

Sensitization

Increase in behavioral response after exposure to a stimulus.

Operant conditioning

Learning that a behavior leads to a certain outcome.

Classical conditioning

Learning that a stimulus predicts another stimulus.

Unconditioned stimulus (US)

A stimulus that elicits a reflex-like response without prior learning.

Unconditioned response (UR)

A reflex-like response that does not need to be learned.

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

A stimulus that elicits a reflex-like response only after learning has taken place.

Conditioned response (CR)

A reflex-like response to the CS that has been learned.

Acquisition

The gradual formation of an association between the CS and US.

Stimulus generalization

Learning that occurs when stimuli similar to the CS elicit the CR.

Stimulus discrimination

Differentiation between two similar stimuli when only one is associated with the US and elicits the CR.

Extinction

Weakening of the CR when the CS is presented without the US.

Spontaneous recovery

Re-emergence of a previously extinguished CR after presentation of the CS.

Primary reinforcers

Consequential stimuli that satisfy biological needs.

Secondary reinforcers

Consequential stimuli established through classical conditioning.

Latent learning

Subconscious retention of information without reinforcement or motivation.

Vicarious learning

Learning to engage in a behavior after seeing others rewarded or punished.

The law of effect

Behaviors leading to satisfying outcomes are likely to recur, while those leading to annoying outcomes are less likely to recur.

Memory

The ability to store and retrieve information.

Encoding

The processing of information so that it can be stored.

Storage

Retention of encoded representations over time.

Consolidation

The neural process by which encoded information becomes stored in memory.

Retrieval

The act of recalling or remembering stored information when needed.

Retrieval cue

Anything that helps recall information stored in long-term memory.

Reconsolidation

Process of re-storage of memory after retrieval.

Long-term potentiation (LTP)

Strengthening of a synaptic connection, making postsynaptic neurons more easily activated.

Sensory memory

A memory system that briefly stores sensory information in its original form.

Absentmindedness

Inattention or shallow encoding of events.

Persistence

Continual recurrence of unwanted memories.

Short-term memory

Simple storage space for brief information.

Working memory

A limited capacity cognitive system that temporarily stores and manipulates information for current use.

Long-term memory

Relatively permanent storage of information.

Context-dependent memory

Storage and retrieval of memory influenced by the environment in which it was learned.

Serial position effect & curve

The ability to recall items from a list depends on their order of presentation.

Primacy effect

Good memory for items at the beginning of a list.

Recency effect

Good memory for items at the end of a list.

Schemas

Cognitive structures in long-term memory that help us perceive, organize, and understand information.

Implicit memory

Memory expressed through responses, actions, or reactions.

Procedural memory

Type of implicit memory involving motor skills and behavioral habits.

Priming

Facilitating a response to a stimulus due to recent experience.

Explicit memory

Memory that is consciously retrieved.

Episodic memory

Memory for personal past experiences identified by time and place.

Semantic memory

Memory for facts independent of personal experience.

Memory bias

Changing of memories over time to fit current beliefs or attitudes.

Anterograde amnesia

Condition where individuals lose the ability to form new memories after brain injury.

Retrograde amnesia

Condition where individuals lose memories formed before brain injury.

Elaborative rehearsal

Encoding information in meaningful ways, connecting new info to existing knowledge.

Maintenance rehearsal

Repeating the item over and over to retain it.

Proactive interference

Interference when prior info inhibits the ability to remember new info.

Retroactive interference

Interference when new info inhibits the ability to remember old info.

Blocking

Temporary inability to remember something.

Analogical representations

Images that include characteristics of actual objects.

Symbolic representations

Abstract mental representations (words) that do not correspond to physical features of objects or ideas.

Heuristics

Shortcuts used to reduce the amount of thinking needed to make decisions.

Availability heuristic

Making a decision based on the answer that most easily comes to mind.

Representativeness heuristic

Placing a person or object in a category if it is similar to one’s prototype for that category.

Stereotype

Cognitive schemas that allow for fast processing of info about people based on group membership.

Script

Type of specific schema that helps understand a series of events or behaviors.

Mental sets

Tendency to approach problems in a particular way based on past experiences.

Functional fixedness

Fixed ideas about typical functions of objects in problem solving.

Insight

The sudden realization of a solution to a problem.

Morphemes

The smallest language units that have meaning.

Phonemes

The basic sounds of speech, the building blocks of language.

Syntax

Rules that govern how words are combined into phrases and sentences.

Aphasia

A language disorder resulting in deficits in language comprehension and production.

Broca's aphasia

Condition resulting from damage to Broca's area affecting speech production.

Wernicke's aphasia

Condition resulting from damage to Wernicke's area affecting comprehension of speech.

Telegraphic speech

Rudimentary sentences that follow logical syntax but miss words and grammatical markings.

Language acquisition device

Innate knowledge of a set of universal linguistic elements aiding in grammar acquisition.

Chomsky's hypothesis

Language is governed by a universal grammar involving surface and deep structure.

Intelligence quotient (IQ)

Index of intelligence derived from standardized tests assessing human intelligence.

General intelligence (g)

The idea that a single general factor underlies multiple dimensions of intelligence.

Fluid intelligence

Intelligence reflecting the ability to process information flexibly.

Crystallized intelligence

Intelligence reflecting knowledge acquired through experience.