Cinnamon roll Flash Cards
Chapter 6:
Learning: a relatively enduring change in behavior, resulting from experience.
Nonassociative learning: responding after repeated exposure to a single stimulus, or event
Associative learning: linking two stimuli, or events that occur together
Observational learning: the acquisition or modification of a behavior after exposure to another individual performing that behavior (aka social learning)
Modeling: Imitating a behavior seen in other
It is effective only if the observer is physically capable of imitating the behavior
Adolescents who associate smoking with admirable figures are more likely to begin smoking
(Bandura's Observational studies suggest exposing children to violence may encourage them to act aggressively.)
Positive reinforcement: a (pleasureable) stimulus is presented/administered after a behavior (e.g., giving a dog a treat for sitting.)
Negative reinforcement: an aversive stimulus is removed or postponed after a behavior (e.g., turning on an AC when it's hot, followed by removal of hot air.)
Positive punishment: administration of (an aversive) stimulus following the behavior, that decreases the probability of that behavior to occur in the future.
Not used often in behavior modification because of potential ethical concerns + absence of teaching alternative (describable) behavior.
Negative punishment: removal of a (an appetitive) stimulus following a behavior, which decreases the probability of the frequency of that behavior in the future.
Habituation: When our behavioral response to a stimulus decreases (a decrease in behavioral response after repeated exposure to a stimulus
Especially if stimulus is neither harmful nor rewarding
Ex. living near train station, gradual ignorance of traffic
Sensitization: When our behavioral response to a stimulus increases (an increase in behavioral response after exposure to a stimulus
Stimuli that most often lead to sensitization are those that are aversive (threatening, annoying, painful)
Ex. experiencing traumatic event might lead to heightened startle response
Operant conditioning: When we learn that a behavior leads to a certain outcome
A learning process in which the consequences of an action determine the likelihood that it will occur in the future
Classical conditioning: When we learn that a stimulus predicts another stimulus
(pavlovian conditioning, respondent conditioning), neural object comes to elicit a response, when it is associated with a stimulus that already elicits that response
Dog thing experiment
Unconditioned stimulus (US): a stimulus that elicits a reflex-like response of interest without any prior learning
food
Unconditioned response (UR): a reflex-like response of interest that does not have to be learned.
Dog salivating at food
Conditioned stimulus (CS): a stimulus that elicits the reflex-like response of interest only after learning (conditioning) has taken place.
light or sound before food administered
Conditioned response (CR): a reflex-like response to the CS; a response that has been learned
Dog salivating to light or sound before food administered
Acquisition: the gradual formation of an association between the CS (conditioned stimulus) and the US (unconditioned stimulus).
Critical element in acquisition is timing and contiguity
CR is stronger when there is a brief delay between CS and US
Stimulus generalization: learning that occurs when stimuli are similar, but not identical to the CS conditioned stimulus, eliciting the CR conditioned response.
Stimulus discrimination: a differentiation between two similar stimuli when only one of them is consistently associated with the US and elicits the CR.
Extinction: a process in which the CR conditioned response is weakened when the CS conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without being paired with the US unconditioned stimulus.
Spontaneous recovery: a process in which a previously extinguished CR conditioned response re-emerges after the presentation of the CS conditioned stimulus.
The recovery will fade again unless the CS is again paired with the US
Primary reinforcers: consequential stimuli that satisfy biological needs (food, water)
Secondary reinforcers: consequential stimuli established through classical conditioning (and other learning processes) (money, compliments)
Serve as reinforcers, but do not satisfy biological needs by themselves
Latent learning: subconscious retention of information without reinforcement or motivation
learning that occurs without immediate demonstration of reinforcement, but becomes apparent when there is a motivation of cue to display it
tolman argued that learning can take place without reinforcement
Vicarious learning: learning to engage in a behavior or not,a after seeing others being rewarded or punished for performing that action
The law of effect: any behavior that leads to a “satisfying state of affairs” is likely to occur again, and any behavior that leads to an “annoying state of affairs” is less likely to occur again.
Questions:
Compare and contrast classical conditioning and operant conditioning
Regarding classical conditoning, what is the difference between generalization and discrimination?
Describe the different schedules of reinforcement. Which ones might work better?
What was Pavlovs experiment as explained in the textbook? Identify and describe the rules of classical conditioning
Who was little albert? Identify US, UR, CS, CR, generalization
Identify each of hte following as either a form of negative punishment, positive reinforcment, negative reinforcement, or positive punishment
You come home past your curfew and are no longer allowed to drive at night
Because you were out all night, you forgot to wash the dishes, so your parents give you extra chores to do
A kindergarten teacher gives students stickers because they raise their hand to answer a question, rather than shouting the answer
You take motion sickness medicine on a boat to prevent yourself from getting the undersirable curse of motion sickness
What is throndikes law of effect?
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Chapter 7:
Memory: the ability to store and retrieve information
Encoding: the processing of information so that it can be stored
Storage: the retention of encoded representations over time
Consolidation: the neural process by which encoded information becomes stored in memory
Retrieval: the act of recalling or remembering stored information when it is needed
Retrieval cue: anything that helps a person (or a nonhuman animal) recall information stored in long-term memory
Reconsolidaiton: process of re-storage of memory after retrieval
Long-term potentiation (LTP): strengthening of a synaptic connection, making the postsynaptic neurons more easily activated by presynaptic neurons
Sensory memory: a memory system that very briefly stores sensory information in close to its original sensory form
Consists of brief traces on the nervous system that reflect perceptual processes
Persists for about one-third of a second and then progressively fades
Enables us to experience the world as a continuous stream rather than in discrete sensations (the way a movie projector plays a series of still pictures)
Absentmindedness: the inattention or shallow encoding of events
Persistence: the continual recurrence of unwanted memories
PTSD is a type of persistence, 7% prevalence in US
Short-term memory: simple storage space for brief information
Working memory: a limited capacity cognitive system that temporarily stores and manipulates information for current use (reasoning and problem solving)
Long-term memory: the relatively permanent storage of information
Long term memory storage enables you to remember semantic and episodic memories
Context-dependent memory: storage and retrieval of memory are influenced by the environment in which it was learned or remembered
Recall is stronger when subject is present in the same environment in which the original memory was formed
Serial position effect & curve: the idea that the ability to recall items from a list depends on the order of presentation (items presented early or later in list remembered better than those in middle)
In a serial position curve, words without influence from the primacy or recency effects are more easily forgotten (shaped like a U)
Primacy effect: people have a good memory for items at the beginning of a list
Recency effect: people have a good memory for items at the end of a list
Schemas: cognitive structure in long-term memory that helps us perceive, organize, and understand information
ex. Mental models, stereotypes, social roles, worldviews + heuristics
Influenced by factors like culture, social roles, and personal experiences
Implicit memory: memory that is expressed through responses, actions, or reactions
Procedural memory: type of implicit memory involving motor skills and behavioral habits (coordinating muscle movements to ride a bike)
Priming: process that facilitates a response to a stimulus due to recent experience with that stimulus or related stimulus
classical conditioning
Non-associative learning
Explicit memory: (aka declarative memory) memory that is consciously retrieved
Episodic memory: memory for one's personal past experiences that are identified by a time and place
Semantic memory: memory for facts independent of personal experience (vast storage of knowledge about the world acquired throughout your life)
Memory bias: the changing of memories over time so that they become consistent with current beliefs or attitudes
Anterograde vs retrograde amnesia:
Anterograde = condition which people lose the ability to form new memories after brain injury
Retrograde = condition which people lose memories that were formed before brain injury
Elaborative vs maintenance rehearsal:
Elaborative = encodes the information in more meaningful ways, connecting new info to existing knowledge, creating associations, thinking about actual meaning of info
Maintenance = repeating the item over and over
Proactive & retroactive interference:
Proactive = interference that occurs when prior info inhibits the ability to remember new info
Retroactive = interference that occurs when new info inhibits the ability to remember old info
Blocking: the temporary inability to remember something
The tip of the tongue phenomenon
Questions
Define and identify the three memory operations
Define and identify the three-stage model of memory, as well as the capacity of each stage
What is the difference between anterograde and retrograde amnesia?
Describe the 3 stage memory information processing model
Describe the serial positon curve
Compare and contrast explicit and implicit memory
Identify what type of memory process each of the following exemplifies (declarative, episodic, semantic, procedural)
Knowing how to ride a bike
Knowing the abcs
Knowing how to tie your shoes
My first psy100 exam was fantastic because i studies weeks in advance allowing me to flawlessly demonstrate all the useful unfomraton i learned
Knowing that utah is a state
Remembering your first trip to japan
What is the difference between the primacy effect and the recency effect?
According to the textbook, why do people forget information?
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Chapter 8:
Analogical representations: images that include characteristics of actual objects
Symbolic representations: abstract mental representations (words) that do not correspond to the physical features of objects or ideas
Heuristics: shortcuts used to reduce the amount of thinking that is needed to make decisons (rules of thumb or info guideline)
Availability heuristic: making a decision based on the answer that most easily comes to mind
Representativeness heuristic: placing a person or an object in a category if that person or object is similar to oneʻs prototype for that category
Stereotype: cognitive schemas that allow for easy fast processing of info about people based on their membership in certain groups
Script & schema:
Script = type of specific schema that help us understand how a series of events/behaviors progress in a situation
Schema = cognitive structures that help us perceive, organize, and process info
Schemas and script minimize attentional requirements and help people avoid dangerous situations
However, may lead us to think and act in stereotypical ways
Mental sets: tendency to approach problems or situations in a particular way, often based on past experiences or learned strategies
Tendency to only see solutions that have worked in the past
Functional fixedness: in problem solving, having fixed ideas about typical functions of objects
Insight: the sudden realizaiton of a solution to a problem
Morphemes: the smallest language units that have meaning
“Com-fort”, com(with), fort(strength)
Phonemes: the basic sounds of speech (building blocks of language)
Syntax: system of rules that govern how words are combined into phrases and how phrases are combined to make sentences
Aphasia: a language disorder that results in deficits in language comprehension and production
Brocaʻs/expressive aphasia: when brocas area is damaged, interrupts ability to speak
Brocas area = speech prodution
Wernickeʻs/receptive aphasia: when wernickes area damaged, people have trouble understanding the meaning of words
Wernicks area = speech comprehension
Telegraphic speech: tendency for toddles to speak using rudimentary sentences that are missing words and grammatical markings but follow a logical syntax and covey a wealth of meaning
Telegraphic stage: 2-3 years (2-3 words sentences)
Language acquisition device: all languages are based on human innate knowledge of a set of universal and specifically linguistic elements and relationships (a built in preparedness to acquire grammar)
Chomsky: in 1959, hypothesized that language must be governed by a universal grammar
Surface structure: the sound and order of words
Deep structure: the implicit meanings of sentences
Intelligence quotient (IQ): index of intelligence deserved from one of several standarized tests designed to assess human intelligence
Good predictor of some of life outcomes like school, work performance, income, jobs requiring complex skill
However additional factors include background, self control, motivation, willingness to work
People from privileged backgrounds tend to have higher IQs
Relative to scores of large number of other people who already took IQ test (mean is 100), standard deviation around 15
Intelligence: alfred binet proposed intelligence is best understood as a collection of high-level mental processes (problem solving/critical thinking)
Ability to learn from experience, adapt to new situations, understand and handle abstract concepts, and use knowledge to manipulate ones environment
General intelligence: (g) the idea that one general factor underlies multiple dimensions/facets of intelligence
Fluid intelligence: intelligence that reflects the ability to flexibility process information, particularly in novel or complex circumstances (working memory)
Crystalized intelligence: intelligence that reflects both the knowledge one acquired through experience and the ability to use that knowledge (long term memory)
Questions
When attending class, students understand that they must behave in a cerain manner. This undersgnading of how to behave in the particular setting of a classroom follows what type of schema?
Describe the ways in which emotion influences decision making
While debating if she should go to the beach, sarah decided not to because a recent shark attack she heard about on the news quickly came to mind although the chances of a shark attack occuring is 1 in 11.5 million. Sarah made this decisions based on what heurisitc?
Eric was asked to use a fork for something other than eating he refused tyo and insisted that there is no other purpose for a fork besides shoveling food into ones mouth. Why?
What did we learn from comsky about children and language?
What is the language acquisition device?
At what age are children able to start putting words together?
A patient is able to understnad what others say to him and is able to move his mouth and tongue. However he is unable to form words or communicate verbally. What might be his diagnosis and why?
How is an iq score derived? What is the average iq set to today? How much variation does iq explain in work and school performance?
What is the idea that there is one intelligence factor involved in all intellectual tasks?