PSY 302: Learning and memory Exam 1 CSUF Dr. Craig Bray

nervous system

• Two main divisions:

  • Central Nervous System (CNS): brain & spinal cord

  • Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): nerves outside the CNS

    • Somatic Nervous System (SNS): voluntary control, sensory & motor signals

    • Autonomic Nervous System (ANS): involuntary functions

      • Sympathetic: fight-or-flight

      • Parasympathetic: rest-and-digest

neuron

• fundamental unit of the nervous system

  • Communicates with electrical (depolarization) & chemical (neurotransmitters) signals

  • Cannot regenerate, but highly plastic (can rewire & grow new connections)

  • Can change shape and connection, which is the basis of learning and memory. 

    • Some dendrite branches grow and extend while others atrophy.

parts of a neuron

• Soma (cell body): contains nucleus, conducts most metabolic functions

• Dendrites: The receiving end of the message, has receptor sites for neurotransmitters. After receiving the neurotransmitters, the depolarization process is stimulated in the next neuron

• Axon: The sending end of the message. sends signals via depolarization (electrical impulse); ends in terminals releasing neurotransmitters into the synapse. Carries both sensory and motor signals. 

• Synapse: gap where neurotransmitters transfer from axon terminal of sending neuron → receiving neuron’s dendrite

neurotransmitters

• chemical messengers (100+ types) made up of amino acids; regulate movement, pain, emotions, thoughts. Responsible for nearly all activity in the nervous system.

glial cells

perform a variety of maintenance tasks – Support & maintain neurons. Clean waste, build myelin sheath, guide axon repair in periphery

3 types of sensory receptors in the PNS

1. Exteroceptive: responds to external stimuli (vision, touch, hearing)

2. Proprioceptive: receives info about body position, movement

3. Interoceptive: internal events (blood pressure, internal organs)

autonomic nervous system

•  Regulates body’s internal environment. Controls the heart, digestion, and other internal organs.

  • Sympathetic: prepares body for action / fight or flight response (↑HR, ↑breathing, ↓digestion, goosebumps)

  • Parasympathetic: conserves energy for non-emergency functions (↓HR, ↑digestion, salivation). 

    • Less linked together than Sympathetic NS → more independent

spinal cord

Communicates with muscles & sensory organs below the head (a part of the CNS)

hindbrain

Lower brain structures controlling vital functions.

• Medulla Oblongata: vital functions (breathing, HR, vomiting, coughing, salivation, sneezing) 

  • Connected directly to the spine.

• Pons: “bridge”; regulates arousal; contains Reticular Formation & Raphe System

  • Extends from spine to the brain

• Cerebellum: movement coordination, sensory-motor integration, attention shifting

  • Damage negatively impacts attention shifting from auditory to visual stimuli

midbrain

• Serves as a conduit for information between the spinal cord and the forebrain. It is important in sensory systems and motor control. 

  • Tectum: processes visual & auditory info

  • Tegmentum: passes the reticular formation + sensory & motor info; involved in sleep/wake cycles

  • Substantia Nigra: movement,coordination & dopamine production. Important in reward and learning. 

    • damage = Parkinson’s

  • Reticular Formation: transfers sensory information to all parts of the brain. Regulates arousal, attention, sleep/wake cycle. Extends from spinal cord to forebrain. 

    • Raphe System: serotonin, mood, pain modulation

    • Locus Coeruleus: bursts of arousal for learning/memory

forebrain

Higher brain functions.

• Cerebral Cortex: Outer layer of brain; involved in thinking, sensation, and voluntary control.

  • Frontal Lobe: motor control, executive functions, personality, language

    • Prefrontal Cortex: working memory, decision-making, emotional regulation, short-term memory

  • Parietal Lobe: body sensation, spatial awareness, map reading

    • Facilitates delayed response tasks; being shown a stimulus, then a delay/distraction task, then remember the stimulus.

  • Temporal Lobe: auditory processing, language comprehension, vision, emotion, motivation

    • Damage to temporal lobe can lead to…

      • diminished normal fear

      • more aggressive behavior

  • Occipital Lobe( primary visual cortex): visual processing (color, motion, shape, spatial relationships); damage = visual impairment

    • Damage to the occipital lobe can lead to visual impairments, including total blindness
      

limbic system

•  emotion, motivation, survival functions. Controls primitive functions that all mammals have. 

  • Thalamus: sensory relay (except olfactory/smell). Receives input of various sensory experiences and sends it to corresponding cortical regions for further processing and interpretation.

  • Hypothalamus: regulates hunger, sleep, temperature, emotion, sex, aggression, motivation and emotion

  • Hippocampus: memory consolidation (short → long term), spatial memory, important in declarative/explicit memory (recollection)

  • Amygdala: emotion (fear, anxiety, aggression), fight/flight, startle reflex, becomes active during REM sleep, impacts arousal which can enhance memory

  • Cingulate Gyrus: emotion, decision-making, social bonding, pain, sensory input, processing, regulates aggression, involved in heart rate and blood pressure

    • Interacts with the hippocampus in memory formation and storage.

endocrine system

• glands releasing hormones (chemical messengers) into the blood stream. Consists of 50+ hormones. The hormones act as chemical messengers to other glands and organs in the body. 

  • Pituitary Gland “master gland”: connected to hypothalamus, regulates other glands/rest of _____ ______

neuroplasticity

neurons adapt through dendritic growth or atrophy

hippocampal damage

memory problems, impaired spatial navigation

amygdala damage

reduced fear response, abnormal aggression

central nervous system

brain & spinal cord

peripheral nervous system

Nerves outside of the CNS

• 3 types of sensory receptors in the PNS

  • Exteroceptive: responds to external stimuli (vision, touch, hearing)

  • Proprioceptive: receives info about body position, movement

  • Interoceptive: internal events (blood pressure, internal organs)

somatic nervous system

voluntary control, sensory & motor signals. Interacts with external environment

• Receives sensory input (pain, touch, temperature, body position)

• Sends motor output to muscles. Processes Exteroceptive and Proprioceptive.

autonomic nervous system

involuntary functions.  Regulates body’s internal environment. Controls the heart, digestion, and other internal organs.

sympathetic nervous system

prepares body for action / fight or flight response (↑HR, ↑breathing, ↓digestion, goosebumps)

parasympathetic nervous system

• conserves energy for non-emergency functions (↓HR, ↑digestion, salivation). 

  • Less linked together than Sympathetic NS → more independent

soma

• contains nucleus, conducts most metabolic functions

dendrites

•  The receiving end of the message, has receptor sites for neurotransmitters. After receiving the neurotransmitters, the depolarization process is stimulated in the next neuron

axon

• The sending end of the message. sends signals via depolarization (electrical impulse); ends in terminals releasing neurotransmitters into the synapse. Carries both sensory and motor signals. 

synapse

gap where neurotransmitters transfer from axon terminal of sending neuron → receiving neuron’s dendrite

Medulla Oblongata

• vital functions (breathing, HR, vomiting, coughing, salivation, sneezing) 

  • Connected directly to the spine.

  • located in hindbrain — apart of CNS

Pons

• “bridge”; regulates arousal; contains Reticular Formation & Raphe System

  • Extends from spine to the brain

  • located in hindbrain — apart of CNS

cerebellum

•  movement coordination, sensory-motor integration, attention shifting

  • Damage negatively impacts attention shifting from auditory to visual stimuli

  • located in hindbrain — apart of CNS

tectum

• processes visual & auditory info

• located in midbrain — apart of CNS

tegmentum

passes the reticular formation + sensory & motor info; involved in sleep/wake cycles

• located in midbrain — apart of CNS

substantia nigra

• movement,coordination & dopamine production. Important in reward and learning. 

  • damage = Parkinson’s

  • located in midbrain — apart of CNS

reticular formation

• transfers sensory information to all parts of the brain. Regulates arousal, attention, sleep/wake cycle. Extends from spinal cord to forebrain.

  • Raphe System: serotonin, mood, pain modulation

  • Locus Coeruleus: bursts of arousal for learning/memory

located in midbrain — apart of CNS

cerebral cortex

• Outer layer of brain; involved in thinking, sensation, and voluntary control.

  • Prefrontal Cortex: working memory, decision-making, emotional regulation, short-term memory

• Apart of CNS

parietal lobe

• body sensation, spatial awareness, map reading

  • Facilitates delayed response tasks; being shown a stimulus, then a delay/distraction task, then remember the stimulus.

• Apart of CNS

temporal lobe

• auditory processing, language comprehension, vision, emotion, motivation

  • Damage to ____ _____ can lead to…

    • diminished normal fear

    • more aggressive behavior

    • apart of CNS

occipital lobe

• ( primary visual cortex) visual processing (color, motion, shape, spatial relationships); damage = visual impairment

  • Damage to the occipital lobe can lead to Visual impairments, including total blindness

  • apart of CNS
    

thalamus

• sensory relay (except olfactory/smell). Receives input of various sensory experiences and sends it to corresponding cortical regions for further processing and interpretation.

• apart of limbic system — CNS

hypothalamus

• regulates hunger, sleep, temperature, emotion, sex, aggression, motivation and emotion

• apart of limbic system — CNS

hippocampus

• memory consolidation (short → long term), spatial memory, important in declarative/explicit memory (recollection)

• apart of limbic system — CNS

amygdala

• emotion (fear, anxiety, aggression), fight/flight, startle reflex, becomes active during REM sleep, impacts arousal which can enhance memory

• apart of limbic system — CNS

cingulate gyrus

• emotion, decision-making, social bonding, pain, sensory input, processing, regulates aggression, involved in heart rate and blood pressure

  • Interacts with the hippocampus in memory formation and storage.

• apart of limbic system — CNS

basal ganglia

• willed movement initiation, habit learning; damaged in Parkinson’s

  • Damage to the ____ ____ can lead to…

    • Memory problems

    • Movement problems

• a part of CNS

endocrine system

• glands releasing hormones (chemical messengers) into the blood stream. Consists of 50+ hormones. The hormones act as chemical messengers to other glands and organs in the body. 

  • Pituitary Gland “master gland”: connected to hypothalamus, regulates other glands/rest of endocrine system

  • a part of CNS