Biology unit 2 (grade 12)

Metabolism

the sum of all anabolic and catabolic processes in a cell or organism

catabolic reaction

an organism breaking down macromolecules to release energy

anabolic reactions

synthesizing molecules (requires energy)

endergonic reactions

activation energy needed to start the reaction, energy stored in the products

exergonic reactions

reactants combined energy level, activation energy needed to start the reaction, energy released into surroundings

aerobic cellular respiration

most often used method of converting glucose to free energy (ATP)

aerobic

oxygen is used in the process

anarobic

oxygen is not used inthe pr

respiration

the 20 reactions that take place to free up the energy in glucose

overall chemical equation for cellular respiration

6 C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6 O₂ —> 6 H₂o + 6 CO₂ + ATP

oxidation

occurs when a molecule loses electrons

reduction

occurs when a molecule gains electrons

amount of energy trapped in the form of ATP

34%, the rest is lost as heat and light

substrate level phosphorylation

the formation of ATP directly in an enzyme-catalyzed reaction, ATPase is used to transfer phosphate to ADP creating ATP

substrate

carbon structure

ADP

adenine diphosphate, not energy, waits and tries to get back to ATP, useless

processes of callcular respiration

glycolysis, pyruvate oxidation, Kreb’s cyclem and the electron transport chain

glycolysis name meaning

“sugar-splitting”

glycolysis

first 10 reactions of cellular respiration

isomerize

rearrange

NADH

holds electrons until they can be dropped of at the ATP “bank”

NAD +

sits in cells and looks for lone pairs of electrons, when NAD + gains electrons it is reduced to NADH

beginning of glycolysis

glucose is phosphorylized (ATP looses phosphate to become ADP)

step after glucose is phosphorylized in glycolysis

isomeration (rearrangement of glucose into 5 carbon ring)

step in glycolysis after glucose is isomerized into 5 carbonr ring

a second phospphorylation resulting in fructose 1,6-bisphosphate

step in glycolysis after glucose becomes fructose 1,6-bisphosphate

breaks into G3P and a DHAP

G3P full name

glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate

step in glycolysis after fructose 1,6-bisphosphate spilts

the DHAP is isomerized into G3P

step in glycolysis after two G3P’s are made

G3P is oxidized, NAD+ is reduced to form NADH

step in glycolysis after G3p is oxidized

substrate level phosphorylationm, phosphate is removed and binds to ADP forming an ATP for each G3P

steps in glycolysis after first two ATP are formed

two isomerizations

step in glycolysis after two final isomerizations

substrate level phosphorylation, resulting in two more ATP and two molecules of pyruvate are formed

beginning of pyruvate oxidation

the two pyruvate molecules enter the matrix (only if oxygen is present)

step of pyruvate oxidation after the two pyruvate molecules enter the matrix

decarboxylation (CO₂ is removed)

step in pyruvate oxidation after the decarboxylaton

oxidation-reduction, pyruvate is oxidized, NAD+ is reduced to form NADH

final step of pyruvate oxidation

coenzyme A molecule is combined with each 2 carbon molecules

end result of pyruvate oxidation

2 acetyl CoA molecules, 2 carbon dioxide molecules, 2 NADH

location of glycolysis

cytoplasm

reactants of glycolysis

glucose, 2 ADP and 2 phosphate, 2 NAD+

products of glycolysis

2 pyruvate, 2 ATP, 2 NADH

amount of ATP required for glycolysis

2

amount of ATP produced from glycolysis

4

net ATP produced from glycolysis

2

glycolysis; aerobic or anarobic

anarobic

location of pyruvate oxidation

matrix of the mitochondria

reactants of pyruvate oxidation

2 pyruvate and 2 NAD+

products of pyruvate oxidation

2 Carbon dioxide, 2 acetyl CoA, 2 NADH

ATP required for pyruvate oxidation

0

ATP produced from pyruvate oxidation

0

net ATP produced from pyruvate oxidation

0

pyruvate oxidation; aerobic or anarobic

aerobic

beta oxidation

breaking down fatty acids

FADH2

electron carrier

first step of kreb cycle

acetyl - CoA joins oxaloacetate to form citrate

step of kreb cycle after Acetyl-CoA forms citrate

citrate is isomerized

step of kreb cycle after citrate is isomerized

oxidation-reduction (6C is oxidized and NAD+. is reduced to form NADH)

Step of kreb cycle after first oxidation-reduction

decarboxylation

step in kreb cycle after first decarboxylation

oxidation-reduction (5C is oxidized and NAD+ is reduced to form NADH)

step in kreb cycle after second oxidation-reduction

substrate level phosphoralation (ADP + PO4 To produce ATP)

step in kreb cycle after substrate level phosphorlation

oxidation-reduction (4C is oxidized and FAD is reducd to FADH2)

step in Kreb cycle after 3rd oxidation-reduction

isomerization of 4C

final step of kreb cycle

oxidation-reduction (4C is oxidized and NAD+ is reduced to form NADH)

location of kreb cycle

matrix of mitochondria

reactants of kreb cycle

2 Acetyl-CoA, 2 FAD, 6 NAD+, 2 ADP + PO4

products of kreb cycle

4 CO2, 2 FADH2, 6 NADH, 2 ATP

ATP required for kreb cycle

0

ATP produced from kreb cycle

2

net ATP produced from kreb cycle

2

kreb cycle; anaerobic or aerobic

aerobic

what is the name of the 4-carbon compound that combines with each of the acetyl-CoA molecules in the kreb cycle

oxaloacetate

what is the name of the first intermediate formed during the kreb cycle and how many carbons does it contian

citrate and 6

why does the kreb cycle spin twice

one spin for each glucose molecule

electron transport chain

series of molecules built into inner mitochondrial membrane, along the cristae, made of transport proteins and enzymes.

what pulls electrons down ETC

electrons move in steps from carrier to carrier down to oxygen, each carrier, more electronegative than previous, controlled oxidation allows for the controlled release of energy

chemiosmosis

the formation of ATP from the diffusion of H+ through an enzyme, build up proton gradient so H+ can flow through ATP synthaze enzyme to make ATP

First step of ETC

NADH arrives and is oxidized to form NAD+ and gives electrons to transport protein

step of ETC after NAD+ gives electrons to transport proteins

the hydrogen is moved from matrix to intermembrane

step of ETC after hydrogen moves to intermembrane

the electrons continue down the ETC

step in ETC afer electrons continue down

two additional hydrogens go to the intermembrane space (3 in total), at the same time FADH2 is oxidized but it misses the pumping station resulting in 2 hydrogen

step in ETC after 2 more hydrogen enter intermembrane space

oxygen comes in and pulls the electrons off the chain and form water

step in ETC after water is formed

hydrogen diffuse through ATP synthaze

step in ETC after chemiosmosis

ATP synthaze turns, causing a hydrogen and a phosphate to attach (oxidation phosphorylation)

location of ETC

intermembrane and matrix of mitochondira

reactants of ETC

10 NADH, 2 FADH2, 6 O2, 34 ADP + PO4

products of ETC

10 NAD+, 2 FAD, 6 H2O, 34 ATP

ATP required for ETC

0

ATP produced from ETC

34

ETC; anaerobic or aerobic

aerobic

what reactioon joins amino acids into polypeptide chain

dehydration synthesis

what reaction breaks polypeptides into amino acids

hydrolysis

how to metabolize protein

protiens break into amino acids through hydrolysis, amino acids convert to pyruvate, acetyl CoA, or alpha ketogluterate in krebs cycle

how to metabolize fats

break bonds between glyerol and fatty acids, glycerol converts to G3P then enters glycolysis

how to metabolize fatty acid tails

long molecules enter mitochondrion and break into 2 carbon fragments (-2 ATP), these fragments are converted to Acetyl CoA and goes to kreb cycle

what is the purpose of building a hydrogen gradient

to stre potiental energy which drives the enzyme ATP synthaze to produce ATP

what is a similiarity and difference between substrate level phosphorlyation and oxxidative phosphorylation

both make ATP. Substrate level uses a carbon structure to attach and oxidative uses chemiosmosis

Lactic acid Fermentation

pyruvate formed during glycolysis is broken down into lactic acid

what percent of ATP does lactic acid fermentation produce

2%

purpose of lactic acid fermentation

to make NAD+ to allow glycolysis to occur again

In what organisms does alcoholic fermentation occur

unicellular