Developmental Psychology Unit 7

Longitudinal study

Research in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period.

Cross sectional study

A study in which people of different ages are compared with one another.

Nature vs nurture

How our genetic inheritance interacts with our experiences and upbringing.

Developmental psychology

A branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span.

Continuous and discontinuous development

The scientific debate over whether developmental change is gradual or relatively abrupt.

Lifespan development

A general perspective emphasizing that human development is a lifelong process of change from conception to death.

Stability and change

In developmental psychology, the ongoing debate about whether people largely stay the same or significantly transform as they age.

Prenatal influence

Any adverse influence on fetal development, including radiation, maternal diseases, behavior (alcohol/drug use), and stress.

Critical period

An optimal period shortly after birth when an organism's exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces proper development.

Imprinting

The process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life.

Maturation

Biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience.

Menarche

The first menstrual period.

Spermarche

A male's first ejaculation of semen.

Menopause

The time of natural cessation of menstruation and the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines.

Puberty

The period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing.

Secondary sex characteristics

Non-reproductive sexual characteristics, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair.

Primary sex characteristics

The body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible.

Teratogens

Agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm.

Infant reflexes

Automatic, unlearned responses such as 1. grasping 2. startle (Moro) 3. rooting 4. stepping 5. sucking.

Adolescence

The transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence.

Fine motor coordination

Activities or skills that require coordination of small muscles, particularly in the hands and face.

Gross motor coordination

Activities or skills that use large muscles to move the trunk or limbs and control posture.

Reflex

Any automatic, unlearned, relatively fixed response to stimuli that does not require conscious effort.

Rooting reflex

An automatic response of a newborn to a gentle stimulus applied to the corner of the mouth, in which the infant turns their head and sucks.

Developmental milestone

Any aspect of development that is significant and predictable, such as the presence of first teeth or language acquisition.

Visual cliff

An apparatus to investigate the development of depth perception in nonverbal human infants and animals.

Adulthood

Period in the human lifespan in which full physical and intellectual maturity have been attained.

Maternal environment

Conditions in the uterus of a pregnant woman that affect fetal development and are hypothesized to have long-term postnatal effects.

Reproduction

The production of new individuals from parent organisms, which perpetuates the species.

Accommodation

Adapting our current understandings to incorporate new information.

Assimilation

Interpreting our new experience in terms of our existing schemas.

Conservation

The principle that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects.

Concrete operational stage

In Piaget's theory, the stage (age 6/7 to 11) during which children gain the mental operations that enable logical thinking.

Crystallized intelligence

Our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age.

Egocentrism

In Piaget's theory, the preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of view.

Fluid intelligence

Our ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood.

Formal operational stage

In Piaget's theory, the stage (beginning age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts.

Object permanence

The awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived.

Preoperational stage

In Piaget's theory, the stage (age 2 to 6/7) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend concrete logic.

Sensorimotor stage

In Piaget's theory, the stage (birth to age 2) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of sensory impressions and motor activities.

Scaffolding

The process in which a more skilled learner gives help to a less skilled learner, reducing help as they become more capable.

Schema

A concept or framework that organizes and interprets information.

Theory of mind

People's ideas about their own and others' mental states—their feelings, perceptions, thoughts, and predicted behaviors.

Zone of proximal development

The gap between what a child can do alone and what they can do with help; where scaffolding occurs.

Abstract thinking

Thinking characterized by the use of general ideas or concepts.

Animism

The belief that inanimate objects are alive or possess lifelike characteristics and intentions.

Dementia

A generalized, pervasive deterioration of memory and at least one other cognitive function due to a variety of causes.

Hypothetical thinking

Abstract logical reasoning that emerges in adolescence and marks the formal operational stage.

Mental symbols

Objects or images used in the preoperational stage to represent words and ideas, often involved in pretend play.

Pretend play

Fantasy or make-believe play that includes an 'as-if' orientation to actions and objects.

Reversibility

In Piagetian theory, a mental operation that reverses a sequence of events to the original condition.

Babbling

Beginning at about 4 months, the stage of speech development in which the infant utters various sounds unrelated to the household language.

Grammar

In a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others.

Language

Our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning.

Morpheme

In a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning (e.g., a prefix or a root word).

One word stage

The stage in speech development (age 1 to 2) during which a child speaks mostly in single words.

Overgeneralization

Application of a principle of regular change to a word that changes irregularly (e.g., 'bringed' instead of 'brought').

Phoneme

In language, the smallest distinctive sound unit.

Semantics

The set of rules by which we derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences.

Syntax

The rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences.

Telegraphic speech

When a child begins to express longer, three-word sentences using nouns and verbs (e.g., 'want cookie now').

Cooing

Vowel-like sounds produced by young infants when they are seemingly happy and contented.

Symbol

Any object, figure, or image that represents something else.

Non-verbal communication

The act of conveying information without the use of words, such as through facial expressions or gestures.

Attachment

An emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by seeking closeness to the caregiver.

Authoritarian

A parenting style that imposes strict rules and expects total obedience.

Authoritative

A parenting style that provides limits and love; results in the most well-adjusted children.

Imaginary audience

Adolescent belief that other people are just as concerned about their thoughts and appearance as they are.

Permissive

A parenting style that provides emotional care but little to no structure or rules.

Personal fable

Adolescent belief that they are unique and protected from harm (invincibility).

Parenting style

Ways in which parents interact with their children, usually measured by warmth and control.

Temperament

A person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity.

Ecological systems theory

Theory concerned with the environments (systems) that govern the course of human development.

Chronosystem

In ecological systems theory, changes and continuities occurring over time that influence development.

Exosystem

Societal structures (government, legal system, media) that affect the individual indirectly.

Macrosystem

The outermost level of environmental influence, including values, traditions, and culture.

Mesosystem

The interactions between different parts of the microsystem (e.g., how home life affects school performance).

Microsystem

The groups that have direct contact with the individual (family, peers, school).

Attachment styles

The characteristic way people relate to others in intimate relationships, influenced by early bonding.

Secure attachment

A relationship where the child shows confidence when the parent is present and mild distress upon separation.

Insecure attachment

A negative parent-child relationship where the child fails to display confidence or trust.

Avoidant attachment

An insecure style where the infant does not seek proximity to the parent and avoids them upon return.

Disorganized attachment

An insecure style where the infant shows inconsistent or coherent behavior during separation and reunion.

Anxious attachment

An insecure style where infants simultaneously seek and resist contact, often worrying about abandonment.

Parallel play

Children playing independently in the same area with the same materials but minimal engagement.

Separation anxiety

The normal apprehension experienced by a young child when away from their primary attachment figure.

Peer influence

Instances where one person affects or is affected by others who are similar in age.

Emerging adulthood

A period from late teens to mid-twenties bridging the gap between adolescent dependence and full adulthood.

ACEs (Adverse Childhood Experiences)

Potentially traumatic events occurring in childhood (0-17), such as abuse or neglect.

Identity diffusion

When adolescents neither explore nor commit to any identities.

Identity foreclosure

When an individual commits to an identity without exploring other options (often adopting parents' views).

Identity moratorium

A state in which adolescents are actively exploring options but have not yet made a commitment.

Identity achievement

When an individual has explored options and made a clear commitment to their purpose and identity.

Identity status model

James Marcia's model describing four statuses of identity based on exploration and commitment.

Identity vs role confusion

Erikson's fifth stage (adolescence) where the individual experiments with different roles to find a sense of self.

Trust vs mistrust

Erikson's first stage (birth-18 months) where infants learn if the world is a trustworthy place.

Autonomy vs shame and doubt

Erikson's second stage (age 1.5-3) where children develop self-reliance or doubt their abilities.

Initiative vs guilt

Erikson's third stage (age 3-5) where children learn to initiate activities and pursue goals.

Intimacy vs isolation

Erikson's sixth stage (young adulthood) where individuals seek to share their lives with others.

Industry vs inferiority

Erikson's fourth stage (age 6-11) where children learn to be productive and accept evaluation.