ap psych study unit 1

evolutionary persepective

looks at how human behaviors helped our ancestors survive and reproduce

natural selection

process where traits that enhance survival and reproduction are passed down more frequently

nature

the influence of genetic factors on traits and behaviors

nurture

the influence of environmental factors on traits and behaviors

twin studies

research comparing the similarities between identical and fraternal twins to understand the influence of genetics vs environment

adoption studies

studies that compare biologically related people, including those raised apart, to understand genetic influences

family studies

research looking at behavioral traits in families to determine how much is genetic vs environmental

heredity

the passing of traits from parents to offspring through genes

genetic predisposition

the likelihood of developing certain traits or disorders based on genetics

eugenics

a controversial and unethical movement aimed at improving the genetic composition of humans through selective breeding

cerebral cortex

the outer layer of the brain, involved in complex mental processes such as thinking

frontal lobes

involved in decision-making, problem- solving, and controlling behavior

prefrontal cortex

part of the frontal lobes involved in planning complex behaviors and expressing personality

executive functioning

higher order processes including planning, organizing, and regulating behavior.

motor cortex

controls voluntary movement

parietal lobes

processes sensory info like touch and spacial awareness

somatosensory cortex

area of the brain that processes sensory input from various body parts

occipital lobes

responsible for vision

temporal lobes

involved in hearing, memory, and understanding language

corpus callosum

thick band of nerve fibers that connects the two brain hemispheres

brainstem

supports basic life functions, including heart rate, breathing, and sleeping

medulla

part of the brainstem that controls vital life sustaining functions like heartbeat and breathing

reticular activating system

regulates wakefulness and sleep-wake transitions

cerebellum

coordinates voluntary movements like posture, balance, and coordination

limbic system

involved in emotion, motivation, and memory

reward center

brain areas that regulate the experience of pleasure

thalamus

relay motor and sensory signals to the cerebral cortex

hypothalamus

regulates body temperature, hunger, thirst, and other homeostatic systems

pituitary gland

the master gland of the endocrine system that regulates other glands

hippocampus

essential for learning and memory

amygdala

involved in emotion processing, particularly fear and aggressionner

nervous system

the body’s communication network consisting of nerve cells

central nervous system

consists of the brain and spinal cord

peripheral nervous system

the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body

autonomic nervous system

controls involuntary bodily functions

sympathetic nervous system

activates the body’s resources during stress and emergencies

parasympathetic nervous system

conserves energy and restores the body to a calm state

somatic nervous system

controls voluntary movements

neurons

nerve cells that transmit info throughout the body

glial cells

support cells in the nervous system

motor neurons

carry signals from the spinal cord to muscles to produce movement

sensory neurons

carry signals from body parts to the central nervous system

interneurons

connect sensory and motor neurons and carry impulses between them

reflex arc

the nerve pathway involved in a reflex action

neural transmission

the process by which neurons communicate with each other

threshold

the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse

action potential

a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an exon

all-or-nothing principal

the rule that neurons are either on or off

depolarization

a decrease in the electrical charge across a cell membrane

refractory period

a period immediately following stimulation during which a nerve or muscle is unresponsive to further stimulation

resting potential

the state of the neuron when not firing a neuron impulse

reuptake

the absorption by a presynaptic nerve ending of a neurotransmitter that it has secreted

consciousness

the awareness of internal and external stimuli

circadian rhythm

the body’s natural 24 hour cycle, affecting sleep and wakefulness

jet lag

fatigue caused by travel across different time zones, disrupting the circadian rhythm

shift work

employment with work hours scheduled at non standard times

NREM Stage 1

The initial stage of sleep, characterized by light sleep and slow eye movement

hypnagogic sensations

feelings of falling or hearing strange noises as one falls asleep during NREM stage 1

NREM Stage 2

the second stage of sleep, where body temperature drops and heart rate slows

NREM stage 3

the deepest and most restorative stage of sleep, includes slow wave sleep

REM sleep

a sleep stage marked by rapid eye movement and dreaming; brain wave are similar to wakefulness

REM rebound

the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation

activation synthesis

theory suggesting dreams are caused by the brain’s attempt to make sense of neural activity during sleep

consolidation theory

theory that dreams help to cement memories and learning

memory consolidation

the process by which temporary memories are converted into stable form

restoration of resources

the theory that sleep helps to restore physical and mental resources depleted during wakefulness

insomnia

difficulty falling or staying asleep

narcolepsy

a disorder characterized by sudden and uncontrollable episodes of deep sleep

REM sleep behavior disorder

a sleep disorder where individuals act out vivid dreams with physical movements

sleep apnea

a disorder where breathing repeatedly stops and starts during sleep

somnambulism

sleepwalking

psychoactive drugs

substances that affect the mind, altering consiousness, perception, or mood

agonists

drugs that increase the action of a neurotransmitter

antagnonists

drugs that block the action of a neurotransmitter

reuptake inhibitors

drugs that block the absorption of neurotransmitters, increasing their levels

stimulants

drugs that increase brain activity, such as caffeine and cocaine

caffeine

a mild stimulant found in coffees, teas, and some sodas

cocaine

a powerful stimulant that affects the central nervous system

depressants

substances that reduce neural activity and slow body functions, like alcohol

alcohol

a depressant that is commonly used and is socially accepted but can impair reasoning and motor skills

hallucinogens

drugs that cause perceptual distortions and heightened sensory experiences

marijuana

a commonly used hallucinogenic that also has some depressive and stimulant effects

opioids

drugs that act on the nervous system to relieve pain; includes heroin

heroin

and opioid drug that causes euphoria but is highly addictive and dangerous

tolerance

a condition in which more of a drug is needed to achieve the same effect

addiction

a psychological and physical inability to stop consuming a chemical, drug, activity, or substance

withdrawal symptoms

occur after stopping or reducing intake of a drug to which one has become addicted

sensation

the process by which sensory receptors receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment

transduction

the conversion of one form of energy into another. in sensory processing, it refers to transforming stimulus energies into neural impulses

perception

the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events

absolute threshold

the minimum stimulus intensity required to detect a stimulus 50% of the time

just-noticeable difference (JND)

the smallest difference in stimulus intensity that a specific sense can detect

sensory adaptation

adjustment in sensory capacity after prolonged exposure to unchanging stimuli

weber’s law

the principle that to perceive their difference, two stimuli must differ by a constant proportion, not a constant amount

synesthesia

a condition in which one sense is simultaneously perceived as if by one or more additional senses

retina

the light sensitive layer of tissue at the back of the eye

blind spot

the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a blind soot because no receptor cells are located there

visual nerve

another term for the optic nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain

lens

the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina

accommodation

the process by which the eye’s lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina