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instinct (evolutionary) theory
(motivation theory) a complex behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species and is unlearned (now replaced with the evolutionary perspective)
focuses on genetically predisposed behaviors
support: explanation for adaptive value of behavior
critique: too many, just named them but not explain
drive-reduction theory (HULL)
(motivation theory) the idea that a physiological stress creates an aroused state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need
focuses on how we respond to our inner pushes and pulls
support: explains motivations that satisfy basic biological needs required for survival
critique: doesn’t explain risk taking or curiosity, or when people eat after they are full
homeostasis
a tendency to maintain a balanced, constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a particular level
incentive theory
(motivation theory) a positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior
support: explains motivations not related to bio homeostasis
critique: not all can be explained, ex altruism
optimum arousal
(yerkes-dodson law) a level of mental stimulation at which physical performance, learning, or temporary feeling of well-being are maximized
people perform best when their arousal level is neither too low nor too high
support: explains personal needs
critique: doesn’t explain some as well as other theories
yerkes-dodson law
the principal that performance increases with arousal only up to a certain point, beyond which performance decreases
(moderate arousal leads to optimal performance)
hierarchy of needs (MASLOW)
maslow’s pyramid of human needs
top ^
self-actualization
esteem needs
belongingness and love needs
safety needs
physiological needs
base ^
support: bio and safety first (allows for some to be stronger than others)
critique: too simplistic, arbitrary, doesn’t need to be 100% satisfied, varies across cultures, not motivated by a single need
self-actualization
(hierarchy of needs) very top of the triangle; last (fifth) need that has to be fulfilled after esteem needs have been met
desire to become the most that one can be
esteem needs
(hierarchy of needs) second section from the top of the triangle; fourth need that has to be fulfilled after love and belonging needs have been met
need for respect, self-esteem, status, recognition, strength, freedom
love and belonging needs
(hierarchy of needs) middle section of the triangle; third need that has to be fulfilled after safety needs have been met
need for friendship, intimacy, family, sense of connection
safety needs
(hierarchy of needs) second section of the triangle from the base; second need that has to be fulfilled after physiological needs have been met
need for personal security, employment, resources, health, property
physiological needs
(hierarchy of needs) base of the triangle; first need that has to be fulfilled before any others
need for food, water, air, sex, warmth, rest, etc.
ancel keys research
group of men fed the same for three months, then 30 men got intake halved
result was that people with the lower intake were food focused, not wanting other things like sex
(refer to hierarchy of needs)
washburn and cannon research
washburn swallowed a balloon which expanded and contrasted in his stomach with a camera inside, he had to press a button when he felt hunger
result was that hunger signals are linked to stomach contractions
lateral hypothalamus
part of brain that stimulates hunger in a person
stomach sends ghrelin (signals to brain) → produces orexin (hunger hormone)
location: both sides of hypothalamus
destruction: no appetite, little interest in food
ventromedial hypothalamus
part of the brain that makes you feel full
leptin produced by fat cells - when abundant causes brain to increase metabolism and lower apatite
location: lower middle area of hypothalamus
destruction: can’t stop eating
set point
the point at which your “weight thermostat” may be set
when your body falls below this weight, increased hunger and a lower metabolic rate may combine to restore your lost weight
basal metabolic rate
the body’s resting rate of energy output
ghrelin
(hormone) released by an empty stomach, signals hunger to the brain
orexin
(hormone) released by the lateral hypothalamus, signals hunger to the individual
leptin
(hormone) released by fat cells, decreases hunger and increases metabolism
PYY
(hormone) released by digestive tract, signals fullness to the brain
anorexia nervosa
(eating disorder) when an individual (usually adolescent female) diets and becomes significantly (15%+) underweight, yet, still feeling fat, continues to starve
bulimia nervosa
(eating disorder) characterized by episodes of overeating, usually of high-calorie foods, followed by vomiting, laxative use, fasting, or excessive exercise
binge eating
(eating disorder) significant caloric intake, followed by distress, disgust, or guilt, but without the compensatory purging, fasting, or excessive exercise that make bulimia nervosa
refractory period
(human sexuality) a resting period that occurs after orgasm, during which a person cannot achieve another orgasm (it is longer in men than in women)
estrogen
(sex hormone) contribute to the female sex characteristics and are secreted more in women than in men
peaks during ovulation
in nonhuman animals, this promotes sexual receptivity
ex: estradiol
testosterone
(sex hormone) contribute to male sex characteristics; both men and women contain (more in men)
fetal period: additional amounts in males stimulates male sex organ growth
puberty: development of the male sex characteristics
affiliation
the need to build relationships and to feel part of a group
social motivation
benefits of belonging
a sense of belonging → healthier, live longer, happier
pain of being shut out
(ostracism) like real pain, worse health (physical and mental), aggression
flow
a complete involved, focused state, with diminished awareness of self and time; results from full engagement of our skills
ex: hyperfocus (type of this)
industrial-organizational psychology
the application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in the workplace
personal psychology
(industrial-organizational psychology) a sub-field that helps with job seeking, and with employee recruitment, selection, placement, training, appraisal, and development
organizational psychology
(industrial-organizational psychology) a sub-field that examines organizational influences on worker satisfaction and productivity, and facilitates organizational change
human factors
a field of psychology allied with I/O psych that explores how people and machines interact, and how machines and physical environment can be made safe and easy to use
achievement motivation
a desire for significant accomplishment, for mastery of skills or ideas, for control, and for attaining a high standard
grit
in psych, passion and perseverance in the pursuit of long-term goals
task leadership
goal-oriented leadership that sets standards, organizes work, and focuses attention on goals
social leadership
group-oriented leadership that builds teamwork, mediates conflict, and offers support
james-lange theory
(emotion theory) the theory that our experience of emotion is our awareness of our physiological responses to an emotion-arousing stimulus
stimulus → arousal → emotion
ex) we observe our heart racing after a threat and then feel afraid
cannon-bard theory
(emotion theory) the theory that an emotion-arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers (1) physiological responses and (2) the subjective experience of emotion
ex: our heart races at the same time that we feel afraid
two-factor theory (SCHACHTER + SINGER)
(emotion theory) the schuchter-singer theory that to experience emotion one must (1) be physically aroused and (2) cognitively label the arousal
* arousal fuels emotion; cognition channels it
ex - we may interpret our arousal as fear or excitement, depending on the context
opponent process
(emotion theory) where one wants a balance of emotions; fear will eventually switch to relief, sadness to happiness, etc.
hijack theory (ZAJONC + rover)
(emotion theory) emotions are felt before we think
ex: we like people right away (for some reason)
cognitive appraisal (LAZARUS)
(emotion theory) where you think before you have an emotion; involves primary and secondary examination
first we look at how the event will effect us, then how to deal with it (unconsciously)
ex) the sound is “just the wind”
really good at explaining love, hate, and guilt
facial feedback effect
the tendency of facial muscle states to trigger corresponding feelings such as fear, anger, or happiness
behavior feedback effect
the tendency of behavior to influence our own and others’ thoughts, feelings, and actions
polygraph
a machine used in attempts to detect lies that measures several of the physiological responses (such as perspiration, heart rate, and breathing changes) accompanying emotion
stress (CANNON)
the process by which we perceive and respond to certain events, called stressors, that we appraise as threatening or challenging
stressors
the cause of stress, any challenge that threatens homeostasis (three types)
catastrophe
significant life change
daily hassles
general adaptation syndrome (SELYE)
selye’s concept of the body’s adaptive response to stress in three phases - alarm, resistance, exhaustion
alarm - fight/flight responses
resistance - protection
exhaustion - total depletion
psychological illness
physical disorders with psychological overlays
like hypertension, headaches
ex: anxiety, depression, etc
low road (LEDOUX)
(dual path theory) fast tract
eye → thalamus → amygdala
(fear)
high road (LEDOUX)
(dual path theory) slow tract
eye → thalamus → sensory/prefrontal cortex for interpretation
tend-and-befriend response
under stress, people (especially women) often provide support to others, and bond with and seek support from others
motivational conflicts theory (LEWIN)
This theory, proposed by psychologist Kurt Lewin, suggests that individuals are motivated to resolve conflicts that can be categorized into three types: approach-approach, avoidance-avoidance, and approach-avoidance
approach-approach
(motivational conflict) least stressful type of conflict in which two attractive but incompatible goals pull us
ex) going to a sporting event or for pizza
avoidance-avoidance
(motivational conflict) conflict between two undesirable alternatives
ex) avoiding studying a disliked subject or avoid failure by doing the reading
approach-avoidance
(motivational conflict) we feel simultaneously attracted and repelled
ex) cool shoes but pay a lot or lame shoes but have money
double approach-avoidance
(motivational conflict) when there is a pro and con for each option
ex) school in wisco → cold but near family
school in Arizona → hot but no family
psychoneuro-immunology
the study of how psychological, neural, and endocrine processes together affect the immune system and resulting health
type A
friedman and roseman’s term for competitive, hard-driving, impatient, verbally aggressive (straight-forward/direct), and anger prone people
type B
friedman and roseman’s term for easygoing, relaxed people
health psychology
a sub-field of psychology that provides psychology’s contribution to behavioral medicine
social support
people with more social connections tend to live longer (promotes happiness and health)
aerobic exercise
sustained exercise that increases heart and lung fitness; also helps alleviate depression and anxiety
biofeedback
a system for electronically recording, amplifying, and feeding back info regarding a subtle psychological state, such as blood pressure or muscle tension
clark hull
1884-1952; Field: motivation; Contributions: maintains that the goal of all motivated behavior is the reduction or alleviation of a drive state, mechanism through which reinforcement operates
drive reduction theory
Abraham maslow
1908-1970; Field: humanism; Contributions: hierarchy of needs-needs at a lower level dominate an individual's motivation as long as they are unsatisfied, self-actualization, transcendence
sexual response cycle (MASTERS + JOHNSON)
the 4 stages of sexual responding described by masters and johnson - excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution
research - conducted this research by observing volunteers while they engaged in sexual activity, both alone and in pairs
sexual activity (KINSEY)
researched this by manipulation sex hormones
alfred kinsey
the first major scientist to analyze human sexual behavior in the US
also made many contributions like the kinsey scale (testing for homosexuality)
adaption-level phenomenon
our tendency to form judgements (of sounds, lights, income) relative to a neutral level defined by our prior experience
tax accountant research
when tax accountants had a stressful deadline approaching, stress increased rise of heart disease
cholesterol and clotting measurements rose to dangerous levels
optimism and health
optimism is linked to lower risk of heart disease
* moods matter
lymphocytes
the 2 types of white blood cells that are part of the body’s immune system
b lymphocytes
(lymphocytes) from in the bone marrow and release antibodies that fight bacterial infections
t lymphocytes
(lymphocytes) form in the thymus and other lymphatic tissue and attack cancer cells, viruses, and foreign substances
mindfulness meditation
a reflective practice in which people attend to current experiences in a nonjudgmental and accepting manner
faith communities and health
religious people tend to live longer (called faith factor)
correlation not causation
religion generally promotes healthy behaviors, social support, and positive emotions
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