S1 Final Exam Review (copy)

Biological Perspective

the psychological perspective that emphasizes the influence of biology on behavior

Neuron

a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system

Dendrites

Branchlike parts of a neuron that are specialized to receive information from other neurons.

myelin sheath

A layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed of neural impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the next

Multiple Sclerosis (MS)

destruction of the myelin sheath on neurons in the CNS which slows down or prevent neural communication

all or nothing principle

The principle that once the electrical impulse reaches a certain level of intensity (its threshold), it fires and moves all the way down the axon without losing any intensity.

Acetylcholine (ACh)

a neurotransmitter involved in learning, memory and muscle movement; too much is associated with muscle spasms; too little is associated with Alzheimers

action potential

a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon

Endorphins

"morphine within"--natural, opiatelike neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure.

sympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations; fight or flight response

parasympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy; rest and digest response.

antagonist

A substance that blocks or inhibits the effects of a neurotransmitter or hormone, often used in pharmacology to counteract the effects of agonists.

depressants

Substances that reduce neural activity and slow body functions, often used to alleviate anxiety or induce sleep.

brain plasticity

The brain's ability to reorganize itself by forming new neural connections throughout life, allowing for adaptation and recovery from injury.

Broca's area

an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech production

Wernicke's area

a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe

Cerebellum

the "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input and coordinating movement output and balance

Hippocampus

located in the limbic system; helps process explicit memories for storage.

corpus callosum

a large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres, facilitating communication between them.

Medulla

the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing

occipital lobe

A region of the cerebral cortex that processes visual information

temporal lobe

A region of the cerebral cortex responsible for hearing and language.

reticular formation

a nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal

split brain patients

corpus collosum is severed, two hemispheres of the brain don't communicate as effectively

circadian rhythm

the natural, internal process that regulates the sleep-wake cycle and other bodily functions, repeating roughly every 24 hours.

REM Sleep Behavior Disorder

a condition in which individuals act out their dreams during REM sleep, often leading to injury.

Sleep Apnea

a sleep disorder characterized by repeated interruptions in breathing during sleep, resulting in poor sleep quality and daytime fatigue.

absolute threshold

the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time

accomodation of lens

lenses change shape to focus on objects near or far

change blindness

failing to notice changes in the environment

selective attention

the process of focusing on a specific object or task while ignoring other stimuli.

difference threshold

the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50 percent of the time

frequency theory

theory of pitch that states that pitch is related to the speed of vibrations in the basilar membrane

Gestalt Psychology

a psychological approach that emphasizes that we often perceive the whole rather than the sum of the parts

monocular cues

depth cues, such as interposition and linear perspective, available to either eye alone

opponent-process theory

the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision; explains after-images

linear perspective

a monocular cue for depth perception that involves parallel lines appearing to converge in the distance.

Sensation

the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment

Perception

the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events

cocktail party effect

the ability to focus on a specific conversation in a noisy environment, such as a party, while filtering out other stimuli.

gate control theory

the theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological "gate" that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass to the brain, influenced by psychological factors.

Transduction

In sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as light waves, sound waves, and smell or taste chemicals, into neural impulses our brains can interpret.

trichromatic theory of color vision

The theory that there are three kinds of cones in the retina, each of which responds primarily to a specific range of wavelengths; explains color blindness

volley theory (pitch)

The theory that suggests groups of auditory neurons can fire in succession, or volleys, to encode the frequency of a sound wave, explaining how humans perceive pitch.

Cones

retinal receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. The cones detect fine detail and color.

Rods

retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don't respond

vestibular sense

a sensory system located in structures of the inner ear that registers the orientation of the head and balance

bystander effect

the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present

cognitive dissonance

Inner tension that a consumer experiences after recognizing an inconsistency between behavior and values or opinions

confirmation bias

a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence

collectivism

a cultural value that emphasizes the importance of the group over individual interests, promoting cooperation and social harmony.

Deindividuation

the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity

Foot-in-theDoor phenomenon

the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request

fundamental attribution error

the tendency for observers, when analyzing another's behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition

group polarization

tendency of group members to move to an extreme position after discussing an issue as a group

Groupthink

the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives

mere exposure effect

the phenomenon that repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them

reciprocity norm

an expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them

self-fulfilling prophecy

an expectation that causes you to act in ways that make that expectation come true.

social facilitation

stronger responses on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others

social loafing

the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable

Solomon Asch

conformity; showed that social pressure can make a person say something that is obviously incorrect ; in a famous study in which participants were shown cards with lines of different lengths and were asked to say which line matched the line on the first card in length

Stanley Milgram

obedience to authority; had participants administer what they believed were dangerous electrical shocks to other participants; wanted to see if Germans were an aberration or if all people were capable of committing evil actions

stereotype

a widely held but oversimplified belief about a particular group of people.

case study

an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

correlation coefficient

a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1.0 to +1.0)

dependent variable

The outcome variable; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.

experiment

A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process; only form of research that can determine a causational relationship

independent variable

The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.

mean

measure of central tendency; average

correlation

A statistical measure that indicates the extent to which two variables fluctuate together, showing the strength and direction of their relationship.

correlation coefficient

A numerical value that quantifies the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables, typically ranging from -1 to 1.

positive correlation

A relationship between two variables in which both variables move in the same direction, indicating that as one variable increases, the other also tends to increase.

negative correlation

A relationship between two variables in which one variable increases as the other decreases, indicating an inverse association.

double blind procedure

A research design in which neither the participants nor the researchers know who is receiving a particular treatment, minimizing bias in the results.

placebo

A substance with no therapeutic effect used as a control in testing new drugs.

confounding variable

A variable that influences both the dependent and independent variables, potentially skewing the results of an experiment.

naturalistic observation

observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation

operational definition

a statement of the procedures used to define research variables

random sample

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

sampling bias

the bias that occurs when a sample is not representative of the population from which it is drawn, often due to non-random selection.

Flynn effect

the observed phenomenon of rising intelligence test scores over time across populations.

multiple intelligence

theory proposing that individuals possess different kinds of intelligences, such as linguistic, logical-mathematical, and spatial.

general intelligence (g)

according to Spearman and others, underlies all mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test

aptitude test

a type of test designed to measure an individual's potential to succeed in a particular activity or field.