17_Genotype Phenotype Fitness

Deletion

Loss of one or more nucleotides from the DNA strand.

Protein

Chain of amino acids that performs structural

Positive selection

Increase in frequency of a variant that confers a reproductive advantage.

Translation

Process in which messenger RNA directs assembly of a chain of amino acids.

Functional RNA

Non‑coding RNA species such as tRNA

Biological fitness

Ability of an organism to survive

Positive selection

Process where advantageous genetic variants increase in frequency over time.

Lethal mutation

Genetic alteration that prevents an organism from reaching reproductive age.

Deleterious mutation

Genetic change that reduces survival or reproductive success.

Genetic variation

Range of differences in DNA sequences among individuals within a population.

Transcription

Process by which DNA is copied into messenger RNA.

Genetic drift

Random fluctuation in allele frequencies that occurs in small populations.

Insertion

Addition of one or more nucleotides into the DNA strand.

Heritable variation

Differences in genetic makeup that can be passed to offspring.

Translocation

Movement of a chromosome segment to a new location

Beneficial mutation

Genetic change that increases an organism's fitness relative to its environment.

Phenotype

Observable structure or behavior that results from the genetic makeup.

Neutral mutation

Genetic change that has little or no effect on fitness.

RNA

Single‑stranded nucleic acid transcribed from DNA and used as a template for synthesis of functional molecules.

DNA

Molecule composed of two complementary strands that stores hereditary instructions.

Fitness consequences distribution

Graphical representation showing most genetic changes are harmful

Gene

Segment of DNA that encodes a functional RNA or protein.

Allele frequency

Proportion of a specific allele among all alleles at a genetic locus in a population.

Genotype

Complete set of alleles carried by an individual.

Inversion

Reversal of the orientation of a chromosome segment.

Allele

Alternative version of a gene that may produce a different trait.

Natural selection

Differential survival and reproduction of individuals due to differences in trait values.

Chromosomal duplication

Copying of a segment of a chromosome

Mutation

Heritable alteration in genetic material that occurs randomly rather than by design.

Base‑pair substitution

Replacement of one nucleotide pair with another in the DNA sequence.

Central dogma

Flow of genetic information from DNA to RNA to functional molecules.

Protein

Functional macromolecule composed of amino acids

Deletion

Removal of one or more nucleotides from a DNA strand.

Genetic variation

Differences in DNA sequences among individuals that provide raw material for evolution.

Insertion

Addition of one or more nucleotides into a DNA strand.

Functional RNA

Various RNA types like tRNA

Biological fitness

Ability of an individual to survive

Beneficial mutation

Change that increases survival or reproductive capability.

Genetic drift

Random fluctuations in variant frequencies due to chance events.

DNA

Deoxyribonucleic acid

Natural selection

Process where individuals with advantageous traits reproduce more

Translocation

Movement of a chromosome segment to a new location within the genome.

Central dogma

Principle describing the flow of genetic information from DNA to RNA to protein.

Allele

Alternative version of a gene.

Gene

DNA segment that encodes a functional RNA or protein.

Genotype

The specific set of gene variants an individual carries.

Base‑pair substitution

Replacement of one nucleotide pair with another in the DNA sequence.

Duplication

Copying of a chromosome segment resulting in multiple copies.

Phenotype

Observable structure or behavior produced by the genetic makeup.

Allele frequency

Proportion of a specific gene variant within a population.

Mutation

Heritable change in genetic material that occurs randomly.

Transcription

Process that creates messenger RNA from a DNA template.

Inversion

Reversal of orientation of a chromosome segment.

RNA

Ribonucleic acid transcribed from DNA and used as a template for protein synthesis.

Neutral mutation

Change that does not noticeably affect survival or reproductive output.

Translation

Process that synthesizes a protein using the sequence information in messenger RNA.

Deleterious mutation

Change that reduces survival or reproductive capability.