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Representative samples

Samples that accurately reflect the characteristics of the population from which they are drawn.

Convenience samples

Samples that are taken from a group that is easily accessible, which may lead to bias.

Sampling bias

A bias that occurs when certain members of the population are less likely to be included in the sample.

Generalizability

The extent to which research findings can be applied to or have relevance for settings, people, times, and measures other than the ones used in the study.

Experimental group

The group in an experiment that receives the treatment or intervention.

Placebo group

A group that receives a placebo or mock treatment to test the efficacy of the actual treatment.

Single-blind procedure

An experimental setup where the participants do not know whether they are in the experimental group or the control group.

Double-blind procedure

An experimental setup where neither the participants nor the experimenters know who is receiving the treatment, to eliminate bias.

Experimenter bias

The influence of the researcher’s expectations on their interpretation of the data.

Case study

An in-depth examination of an individual, group, or phenomenon.

Correlation (does not equal causation)

The principle that correlation between two variables does not imply that one causes the other.

Positive correlation

A relationship in which two variables increase or decrease together.

Negative correlation

A relationship in which one variable increases as the other decreases.

Directionality problem

An issue in correlational studies that arises when the direction of the relationship between two variables is unclear.

Third-variable problem

An issue in correlational studies where a third variable affects both of the variables being studied, potentially misleading the results.

Scatterplots

Graphs that depict the relationship between two numerical variables.

Correlation coefficient

A numerical index of the degree of relationship between two variables, ranging from -1 to +1.

Quantitative measures

Data expressed in numerical format, such as scores or ratings on a Likert scale.

Qualitative measures

Data that is descriptive and conceptual, often gathered through methods like structured interviews.

Surveys

Research tools used to gather data from a predefined group of respondents.

Framing

The way information is presented, which can influence how it is interpreted.

Social desirability bias

The tendency of respondents to answer questions in a manner they believe will be viewed favorably by others.

Self-report bias

The tendency for people to respond inaccurately or falsely to questions to present themselves in a favorable light.

Meta-analysis

A statistical technique for combining the results of multiple studies to arrive at a conclusion.

Naturalistic observation

A research method involving the observation of subjects in their natural environment.

Hypothesis

A testable prediction about the relationship between two or more variables.

Replication

The process of repeating a study to see if the same results can be obtained.

Peer review

A process by which research is evaluated by other experts in the field before it is published.

Ethical guidelines

Protocols that govern the ethical conduct of research involving human and non-human participants.

Institutional review board

A committee that reviews research proposals to ensure ethical standards are met.

Informed consent

The process of providing potential research participants with all relevant information regarding the study before they agree to participate.

Informed assent

The agreeing to participate in research by individuals who may not fully understand the implications, often used for minors.

Protection from harm

An ethical principle that protects participants from physical or psychological harm.

Confidentiality of participants

The ethical obligation to protect the privacy of research participants.

Minimal deception

The ethical practice of only using deception when absolutely necessary and justified in research.

Confederates

People who are part of the research team but pretend to be participants or bystanders.

Debriefing

The process of informing participants about the true nature and purpose of a study after it has concluded.

Central tendency

A statistical measure that identifies a single score as representative of an entire distribution (mean, median, mode).

Measures of variation

Statistical indicators that describe how much scores in a data set differ from one another (e.g., range, standard deviation).

Normal curve

A bell-shaped distribution that describes the spread of a set of data.

Positive skew

A distribution in which most values are clustered at the lower end, with a few large values extending the tail to the right.

Negative skew

A distribution where most values are concentrated at the higher end, with a few low values extending the tail to the left.

Bimodal distributions

Distributions with two different modes or peaks.

Regression toward the mean

The phenomenon where extreme values tend to be followed by more moderate ones.

Effect sizes

Quantitative measures of the magnitude of an experiment's effect.

Cognitive biases

Systematic deviations from norm or rationality in judgment, examples include confirmation bias, hindsight bias, and overconfidence.

Nature and nurture

The debate over the relative impact of genetic inheritance and environmental factors on human development.

Genetic predisposition

An increased likelihood of developing a particular disease or condition due to an individual's genetic makeup.

Seven perspectives

Different theoretical approaches to understanding human behavior, including biological, cognitive, behavioral, humanistic, psychodynamic, sociocultural, and evolutionary perspectives.

Eugenics

A set of beliefs and practices aimed at improving the genetic quality of a human population often through selective breeding.

Twin studies

Research studies that involve comparing the similarities and differences between identical and fraternal twins to understand the influence of genetics and environment on behavior and traits.