Ch. 1 - Biology and Behavior

8% of MCAT P/S content

What is neuropsychology?

the study of the connection between the nervous system and behavior, focusing on the functions of various brain regions.

What are the three types of neurons in the nervous system?

Sensory (afferent) neurons

motor (efferent) neurons

Interneurons.

How do reflex arcs work?

use interneurons in the spinal cord to relay information to the source of stimuli while simultaneously routing it to the brain.

What are the two main divisions of the nervous system?

central nervous system (CNS; brain and spinal cord)

peripheral nervous system (PNS; most cranial and spinal nerves)

How is the PNS further divided?

Into the somatic (voluntary) and autonomic (automatic) divisions.

What are the two branches of the autonomic nervous system?

parasympathetic (rest-and-digest)

sympathetic (fight-or-flight)

What are the three subdivisions of the brain?

Hindbrain, midbrain, and forebrain.

What structures are found in the hindbrain?

The cerebellum, medulla oblongata, and reticular formation.

What structures are found in the midbrain?

The inferior and superior colliculi.

What structures are found in the forebrain?

The thalamus, hypothalamus, basal ganglia, limbic system, and cerebral cortex.

What are methods used to study the brain?

lesions in humans and animals, electrical stimulation and activity recording (e.g., EEG), and regional cerebral blood flow.

What is the function of the thalamus?

acts as a relay station for sensory information.

What is the function of the hypothalamus?

maintains homeostasis and integrates with the endocrine system through the hypophyseal portal system that connects it to the anterior pituitary.

What is the role of the basal ganglia?

smoothen movements and help maintain postural stability.

What is the limbic system responsible for, and what are its major components?

controls emotion and memory, including the septal nuclei, amygdala, and hippocampus.

What is the function of the septal nuclei?

involved in feelings of pleasure, pleasure-seeking behavior, and addiction.

What does the amygdala control?

Fear and aggression.

What is the role of the hippocampus?

consolidates memories and communicates with the limbic system via the fornix.

What are the four lobes of the cerebral cortex?

Frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal.

What does the frontal lobe control?

Executive function, impulse control, long-term planning, motor function, and speech production.

What does the parietal lobe control?

Sensations of touch, pressure, temperature, and pain; spatial processing; orientation; and manipulation.

What is the primary function of the occipital lobe?

Visual processing.

What does the temporal lobe control?

Sound processing, speech perception, memory, and emotion.

How are the brain hemispheres divided, and what is the dominant hemisphere for language in most individuals?

divided into left and right hemispheres, with the left hemisphere being dominant for language in most people.

What are neurotransmitters, and what do they do?

chemicals released by neurons that carry a signal to another neuron or an effector, such as a muscle fiber or a gland.

What are the functions of acetylcholine?

used by the somatic nervous system (to move muscles), the parasympathetic nervous system, and the central nervous system (for alertness).

What is the role of dopamine in the body?

maintains smooth movements and steady posture.

What are the functions of endorphins and enkephalins?

act as natural painkillers.

What do epinephrine and norepinephrine do?

maintain wakefulness and alertness and mediate fight-or-flight responses.

Epinephrine acts as a hormone

Norepinephrine acts as a neurotransmitter.

What is the function of GABA and glycine in the brain?

act as brain “stabilizers.”

What role does glutamate play in the brain?

acts as an excitatory neurotransmitter.

What are the functions of serotonin?

modulates mood, sleep patterns, eating patterns, and dreaming.

How are the endocrine system and nervous system connected?

through the hypothalamus, the anterior pituitary, and several hormones.

What is cortisol, and what does it do?

a stress hormone released by the adrenal cortex.

What are the functions of testosterone and estrogen?

Mediate libido.

Both are released by the adrenal cortex, with testosterone being produced in the testes (males) and estrogen in the ovaries (females).

Testosterone also increases aggressive behavior.

Where are epinephrine and norepinephrine released from, and what do they cause?

released by the adrenal medulla and cause physiological changes associated with the sympathetic nervous system.

What is the nature vs. nurture debate?

debate about the relative contributions of genetics (nature) and environment (nurture) to an individual’s traits.

Most traits involve contributions from both.

What do family studies examine?

look at the relative frequency of a trait within a family compared to the general population.

What do twin studies compare?

compare concordance rates between monozygotic (identical) and dizygotic (fraternal) twins.

What do adoption studies compare?

compare similarities between adopted children and their adoptive parents versus their biological parents.

How does the nervous system develop during neurulation?

stimulates the overlying ectoderm to fold over, creating a neural tube (which becomes the CNS) topped with neural crest cells.

What is the role of neural crest cells in development?

spread throughout the body, differentiating into many different tissues.

What are primitive reflexes, and why are they significant?

involuntary movements in infants that serve (or served) a protective role.

typically disappear with age but can reappear in certain nervous system disorders.

What happens during the rooting reflex?

Infants turn their heads toward anything that brushes their cheek.

What occurs during the Moro reflex?

In response to a sensation of falling, the infant extends their arms, slowly retracts them, and cries.

What is the Babinski reflex?

The big toe extends, and the other toes fan out in response to brushing the sole of the foot.

What is the grasping reflex?

Infants grab onto anything placed into their hands.

What do developmental milestones indicate?

show the skills and abilities a child should have at a given age, typically with only one or two months of variation.

How do gross and fine motor abilities progress in infants?

progress from head to toe and from the core to the periphery.

How do social skills evolve in children?

shift from parent-oriented to self-oriented to other-oriented.

How do language skills change as a child develops?

Language skills become increasingly complex over time.