Unit 1 - Psychology as Science

How do most people approach learning strategies?

(Introduction to Learning)

Most people follow their ‘gut’ when it comes to learning strategies.

• They tend to do what feels right rather than using specific strategies or techniques that work for them.

• This can lead to inconsistent or ineffective learning outcomes.

Why is learning considered a broad concept?

(Introduction to Learning)

Learning encompasses a wide range of cognitive and behavioral processes, including motivation, memory, attention, and comprehension.

How does motivation affect learning?

(Introduction to Learning)

Motivation influences how much effort a person puts into learning and how well they retain information.

• Example: The Candle Test (learned in APS)

  • Motivation is not affected or enhanced by money ($$).

  • Prioritizing meaningful material increases motivation.

What is working memory?

(Introduction to Learning)

The ability to hold and manipulate information temporarily in the mind while performing a task.

• Most people can hold 4 (+ or - 2) items in their working memory at a time.

How does working memory affect reasoning?

(Introduction to Learning)

A neurotypical student with 4 working memory slots can hold and process more information at once compared to a neurodivergent student with 3 slots.

• Example:

  • A neurotypical student can keep track of a question and three possible answers.

  • A neurodivergent student might forget the question by the time the third answer is presented.

How does attention affect working memory?

(Introduction to Learning)

Neurodivergent individuals often struggle to maintain information in working memory because other thoughts push out the information.

• People with ADHD have to actively direct their attention, which uses up working memory slots.

How does working memory affect reading comprehension?

(Introduction to Learning)

Working memory stores previously read text while simultaneously processing new information to create a coherent understanding of the material.

How does anxiety affect working memory?

(Introduction to Learning)

Anxiety disrupts working memory by interfering with the prefrontal cortex (which governs thought, attention, and reasoning).

• Process:

  1. Cortical steroids stimulate the amygdala (fear center).

  2. Amygdala inhibits the prefrontal cortex.

  3. This causes the mind to "go blank" (fight-flight-freeze response).

Why are chess masters good at chess?

(Introduction to Learning)

Chess masters can recognize and remember chunks of chess pieces in frequently occurring patterns.

• This helps them quickly identify the best move during a game.

What are encoding activities?

(Introduction to Learning)

The process of transforming information into a memory trace that can be stored and retrieved later.

What is the difference between intentional and incidental learning?

(Introduction to Learning)

• Intentional Learning: Actively trying to learn something.

• Incidental Learning: Learning something unintentionally.

What is survival processing in learning?

(Introduction to Learning)

Connecting information to how it might help you survive increases memory retention.

• Example: Learning a word by considering how useful it would be in a survival scenario.

How can learners improve self-control of learning strategies?

(Introduction to Learning)

• Spend more time on difficult material.

• Restudy what you don’t know.

• Adapt strategies based on feedback.

What are some research-backed effective encoding strategies?

(Introduction to Learning)

• Spaced repetition.

• Active recall.

• Elaboration (connecting new information to existing knowledge).

• Self-testing.

What is metacognition?

(Introduction to Learning)

Awareness of one’s cognitive abilities and how to apply them effectively.

• Successful students have a higher level of metacognition.

Why is metacognition important for learning?

(Introduction to Learning)

• Helps students assess how well they understand a topic.

• Guides them to adjust strategies to improve learning.

What is perceptual learning?

(Introduction to Learning)

Learning through the use of the five senses (sight, sound, touch, taste, smell) to extract information from the environment.

What is implicit learning?

(Introduction to Learning)

Learning that occurs without conscious intention, but results in a change in behavior.

• Example: Picking up grammar rules through repeated exposure without actively studying them.

Name the 4 differences in learners:

(Introduction to Learning)

• Motivation

• Working Memory

• Anxiety

• Expertise

Who has a better metacognition:

• Student (A): predicted they would get 95% as their final grade and actually got 80% as their final grade

• Student (B): predicted they would get around 50% as their final grade and got 51%

(Introduction to Learning)

Student (B) has better metacognition, as their prediction was close to their actual performance, indicating a more accurate self-assessment of their abilities.

Why isn’t the Stanford Prison Experiment not considered to be an experiment?

(Stanford Prison Experiment)

It is not an experiment, it is considered a simulation as there is no independent variable

What is the nervous system divided into?

(Nervous System Diagram)

The Central Nervous System (CNS) and the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

What is the Central Nervous System composed of?

(Nervous System Diagram)

the brain and the spinal cord

What is the Peripheral Nervous System composed of?

(Nervous System Diagram)

a network of nerves that lies outside of the brain and spinal column

What does the PNS divide into?

(Nervous System Diagram)

the sensory division and motor division

What does the motor division divide into?

(Nervous System Diagram)

somatic nervous system and autonomic nervous system

What does the autonomic nervous system divide into?

(Nervous System Diagram)

Sympathetic division and Parasympathetic division

Why is learning not fast?

(Dr. Chew Videos)

Truly comprehending material takes careful reading and review; assignments take longer than expected, so plan to finish early for proper review.

Why is knowledge not composed of isolated facts?

(Dr. Chew Videos)

Teachers test comprehension, not memorization—understanding concepts is key.

Why is being good at a subject not a matter of inborn talent?

(Dr. Chew Videos)

Academic success depends on hard work, not natural ability—you must put in time and effort.

Why are most people not good at multi-tasking?

(Dr. Chew Videos)

Multi-tasking increases learning time, decreases understanding, and raises chances of poor performance.

What is meta-cognition?

(Dr. Chew Videos)

Your awareness of how well you understand material.

How does accurate meta-cognition affect learning?

(Dr. Chew Videos)

Successful students have better meta-cognition—they know how much they understand and study more effectively.

Why do weaker students struggle with meta-cognition?

(Dr. Chew Videos)

Weaker students overestimate understanding, leading to less study time and poor performance.

What does the meta-cognition graph show?

(Dr. Chew Videos)

The closer a student is to the diagonal line, the stronger their meta-cognition (accurate awareness of understanding).

How can poor meta-cognition indicate poor study strategies?

(Dr. Chew Videos)

Poor strategies build overconfidence without increasing learning—requires improved study techniques.

What is the most important factor in successful learning?
(Dr. Chew Videos)

What you think about while studying.

Why do shallow study strategies fail?

(Dr. Chew Videos)

They focus on surface-level understanding (e.g., memorizing definitions) rather than deeper meaning.

What are deep study strategies?

(Dr. Chew Videos)

Strategies that focus on subjective meaning, connecting new info to prior knowledge, and making it personal.

What are orienting tasks?

(Dr. Chew Videos)

Tasks that make you think in deep or shallow ways, regardless of your intention.

What doesn't help you learn?

(Dr. Chew Videos)

• Motivation

• Time spent studying with shallow processing

• Memorization of isolated facts

• Learning styles

• Multi-tasking

What does help you learn?

(Dr. Chew Videos)

• Minimizing distractions, maximizing focus

• Developing accurate meta-cognition

• Deep processing of critical concepts

• Practicing retrieval and application

What is elaboration in deep processing?

(Dr. Chew Videos)

Relating a concept to other concepts → More meaningful associations improve learning.

What is distinctiveness in deep processing?

(Dr. Chew Videos)

Identifying key differences and similarities between concepts.

What is the personal aspect of deep processing?

(Dr. Chew Videos)

Relating a concept to your personal experience → More meaningful retention.

What is appropriate retrieval and application?

(Dr. Chew Videos)

Practicing information retrieval in the way you’ll be tested.

What is automaticity?

(Dr. Chew Videos)

A process so well-practiced that it happens without conscious effort (e.g., driving).

What is overlearning?

(Dr. Chew Videos)

Studying past just knowing the info until it can be recalled quickly and easily.

How does question generation help deep processing?

(Dr. Chew Videos)

Creating questions about notes tests understanding and promotes active recall.

How does a concept map help deep processing?

(Dr. Chew Videos)

Visually connecting ideas strengthens understanding and memory.

How should you practice retrieving information?

(Dr. Chew Videos)

Cover notes, recall information without looking, and explain it to someone else.

Why should you practice using information?

(Dr. Chew Videos)

Helps align understanding with how teachers will test you.

Why is taking notes in class helpful?

(Dr. Chew Videos)

• Provides a key summary

• Creates memory cues

• Keeps you engaged

What are best practices for taking notes?

(Dr. Chew Videos)

• Get missed info right away

• Consider recording the lecture

• Borrowing notes = poor substitute

• Actively organize and review notes

What are the key rules for effective group study?

(Dr. Chew Videos)

1. Set a goal and agenda

2. Set criteria for participation

3. Keep the learning goal in mind

4. Everyone asks/answers at least 3 questions

5. Any member can express the group’s understanding

What are low-order thinking skills?

(Cognitive Taxonomy of MCQs)

Thinking skills that do not require significant effort.

• Examples:

  • Memorization

  • Basic understanding

  • Simple recall

What are high-order thinking skills?

(Cognitive Taxonomy of MCQs)

Thinking skills that require more effort and deeper processing.

• Examples:

  • Analysis

  • Evaluation

  • Creation

What is cognition?

(Cognitive Taxonomy of MCQs)

The process of acquiring and understanding knowledge through thought.

• Involves:

  • Perception

  • Memory

  • Judgment

  • Reasoning

What is Bloom's Taxonomy?

(Cognitive Taxonomy of MCQs)

• A framework for categorizing cognitive skills from basic to complex.

• Divided into low-order and high-order thinking skills.

What are the levels of Bloom's Taxonomy (from lowest to highest)?

(Cognitive Taxonomy of MCQs)

1. Remembering – Recall facts and basic concepts (e.g., list, define).

2. Understanding – Explain ideas or concepts (e.g., describe, summarize).

3. Applying – Use information in new situations (e.g., use, solve).

4. Analyzing – Draw connections among ideas (e.g., compare, contrast).

5. Evaluating – Justify a decision or course of action (e.g., assess, argue).

6. Creating – Produce new or original work (e.g., design, construct).

What separates low-order from high-order thinking skills?

(Cognitive Taxonomy of MCQs)

• Low-order: Remembering, Understanding, Applying

• High-order: Analyzing, Evaluating, Creating

Why are high-order thinking skills more challenging?

(Cognitive Taxonomy of MCQs)

• Require deeper understanding and more cognitive effort.

• Involves complex reasoning and critical thinking.

How are multiple-choice questions designed to test different thinking levels?

(Cognitive Taxonomy of MCQs)

• Low-order: Recall and comprehension questions.

• High-order: Application, analysis, and evaluation questions.

What is science?

(Why Science)

• An approach to inquiry based on actual measurement and observation.

What is a hypothesis?

(Why Science)

• A logical idea that can be tested through observation and experimentation.

What is an observation?

(Why Science)

A careful examination of the real world to gather data and evidence.

What is a theory?

(Why Science)

Conclusions drawn from closely related phenomena or multiple observations.

How has science improved life compared to earlier times?

(Why Science)

• Printing press – Made education accessible to the masses.

• Mass transportation – Enabled efficient movement of people and goods.

• Birth control – Gave individuals control over reproductive health.

• Tesla and Edison – Revolutionized electrical power and lighting.

• Insulin – Transformed the treatment of diabetes.

What is psychological science?

(Why Science)

• A branch of science dealing with the mental processes and behaviour of individuals and groups.

What is applied science?

(Why Science)

• Application of scientific knowledge to practical problems or situations.

• Example: Psychotherapy for mental health treatment.

What is psychotherapy?

(Why Science)

A form of psychological treatment where a therapist uses various techniques to:

• Help patients overcome troubles

• Gain insight

• Achieve personal growth

Why are there different approaches to psychotherapy?

(Why Science)

• Different philosophies on the human mind lead to:

  • Various methods for analyzing and treating mental health issues.

  • Therapists create unique experiences for clients.

  • Some methods are more effective for certain individuals.

What is catastrophizing?

(Why Science)

• A type of faulty cognition where a person assumes the worst possible outcome.

What was Harry Harlow’s Attachment Experiment?

(Why Science)

• Baby monkeys were separated from their mothers and placed in cages with two artificial mothers:

  • Wire mother – Bare wire cylinder with a feeding bottle attached.

  • Cloth mother – Cozier cylinder wrapped in cloth but no feeding bottle.

• Results:

  • Monkeys overwhelmingly preferred the cloth mother over the wire mother.

  • Even while feeding from the wire mother, they clung to the cloth mother.

  • Conclusion: Contact and touch are vital to attachment, learning, emotional well-being, and psychological development.

What are career options in psychology?

(Why Science)

• Sports psychologist – Helps athletes improve performance and mental well-being.

• Marketing and advertising – Uses psychological principles to influence consumer behaviour.

• Organizational development and human resources – Improves workplace performance and morale.

• Psychotherapist – Provides therapy for mental health issues.

• Researcher – Conducts studies to advance psychological knowledge.

• Criminal investigator – Uses psychology to solve crimes and understand criminal behaviour.

• College instructor – Teaches psychology at the post-secondary level.

What are the steps of the research process?

(Why Science)

1. Idea for the study

   • Example: Does a man's height impact dominance among other men?

2. Designing the study

   • Example:

     • Natural setting (e.g., bar).

     • 2 confederates (short and tall male).

     • Independent variable = Size of beer thief.

     • Dependent variable = Reaction of other males.

3. Application to the IRB

   • Researcher must apply to an Internal Review Board (IRB) for ethical approval.

   • Board checks for deception or psychological harm.

4. Collecting data

   • Video recordings analyzed for dominance/subordination behaviours.

5. Analyzing data

   • Data processed using software (e.g., SPSS).

6. Peer review publication process

   • Paper submitted for peer review.

   • Flawed papers are rejected; papers with potential are revised.

   • Revisions may include:

     • Collecting more data

     • New types of analysis

     • Better explanation of details

What is psychology?

(Why Science)

• The science of the mind and human behaviour.

• Aims to understand:

  • Mental functions

  • Physiological and biological processes

  • Internal mechanisms behind human actions and behaviour

What questions does psychology ask?

(Why Science)

• Why do we think, feel, and act the way we do?

• How do our perceptions, intelligence, personality, and motivation function?

How does psychology inform other disciplines?

(Why Science)

Helps us understand:

• Our own actions and decisions in history.

• Economic behaviour.

• Media influence.

• Impact of the law.

How long has psychology existed?

(Why Science)

• Over 150 years as a distinct discipline.

• Influences traced back to:

  • 4th century BC – Aristotle, Hippocrates, Plato

  • Lao Tzu and Confucius

_______:

• Introduced the concept of the unconscious.

• Developed the Oedipus/Electra complex.

(Why Science)

Sigmund Freud

__________:

• Experiments on rats → Positive and negative reinforcement (reward and punishment).

(Why Science)

B.F.Skinner

_________:

• Explored whether machines can think → Early foundation for AI.

(Why Science)

Alan Turing

_________;

• Classical conditioning – Behaviour can be understood through stimulus and response.

(Why Science)

Ivan Pavlov

______:

• Studied prejudice and influenced the American Civil Rights Movement.

(Why Science)

Gordon Allport

________:

• Examined streams of consciousness, emotion, habit, and will.

(Why Science)

William James

_______:

• Developed the hierarchy of needs to explain human motivation

(Why Science)

Abraham Maslow

________:

• Developed the theory of cognitive dissonance.

  • New information creates stress.

  • People often ignore information they don’t want to hear.

(Why Science)

Leon Festinger

_________:

• The Lucifer Effect – How good people turn evil.

  • Stanford Prison Experiment – College students became aggressive when given authority.

(Why Science)

Philip Zimbardo

________:

• Studied obedience to authority.

• Found that most participants were willing to give electric shocks to strangers when ordered to.

(Why Science)

Stanley Milgram

Why is learning psychology valuable?

(Why Science)

• To understand ourselves.

• To understand others.

• To influence others:

  • Socializing children

  • Motivating employees

• To improve the world through effective therapy and intervention.

• To develop professional skills (e.g., social work, research).

• To evaluate research claims critically.

• Because it is interesting, challenging, and fun.

What does correlation mean?

(Research Designs)

• a relationship between two variables where in change in one are associated changes in the other

Does correlation mean causation?

(Research Designs)

No! Just because two things are correlated does not mean one causes the other.

What is the symbol for correlation?

(Research Designs)

“R” represents correlation

. What are the possible values of correlation (R)?

(Research Designs)

• +1 = Perfect positive correlation (both variables increase together).

• -1 = Perfect negative correlation (one variable increases while the other decreases).

• 0 = No correlation (no relationship between variables).

What is the difference between positive and negative correlation?

(Research Designs)

• Positive correlation → Both variables move in the same direction.

• Negative correlation → One variable increases while the other decreases.

What is experimental research?

(Research Designs)

A method that tests cause-and-effect relationships by manipulating one variable and measuring its effect on another.

Example Experiment: Does highlighting improve retention? Give the process that would be done to do this experiment

(Research Designs)

Process:

1. Randomly assign students to two groups:

   • Group 1: Highlights text.

   • Group 2: No highlighting.

2. Measure students’ grades and memory retention.

What are the independent and dependent variables in the highlighting experiment?

(Research Designs)

• Independent variable (IV): Highlighting.

• Dependent variable (DV): Grades and memory retention.

Why is random assignment important?

(Research Designs)

• Ensures equal distribution of characteristics in both groups.

• Prevents people from choosing a study method that already works for them.