AP Psychology Units 1-3: ALL TERMS

semester 1 exam study guide

nature

nurture issue

natural selection

the principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations

evolutionary psychology

the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection

Environment

every nongenetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us

Heredity

the genetic transfer of characteristics from parents to offspring

identical twins

Individuals who develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms

Fraternal twins

Individuals who develop from separate fertilized eggs. They are genetically no closer than ordinary brothers and sisters, but they share a prenatal environment

eugenics

the controversial science of believing in the use of controlled breeding to increase the occurrence of desirable heritable characteristics

twin studies

researchers assess hereditary influence by comparing the resemblance of identical twins and fraternal twins with respect to a trait

family studies

Looks at behavioral and medical histories within a family to identify how certain traits or disorders are passed down through generations, highlighting the genetic influences and familial patterns.

adoption studies

Examines the similarities and differences between adopted children and their biological and adoptive families to separate the effects of the environment from those of genetics on human development.

nervous system

the body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems

Central Nervous System (CNS)

brain and spinal cord

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body.

somatic nervous system

the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles

autonomic nervous system

the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms.

sympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations

parasympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy

Neuron

a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system

motor neurons

neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands

sensory neurons

neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord

interneurons

neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs

reflex arc

a simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response

cell body

Largest part of a typical neuron; contains the nucleus and much of the cytoplasm

Dendrites

a neuron's bushy, branching extensions that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body

Axon

the segmented neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands

myelin sheath

A layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed of neural impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the next.

glial cells (glia)

cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons. They may also play a role in learning, thinking and memory.

depolarization

Loss of a state of polarity; leads up to action potential

action potential

a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon

threshold

the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse

refractory period

the time following an action potential during which a new action potential cannot be initiated

all-or-none response

a neuron's reaction of either firing (with a full-strength response) or not firing.

Synapse

the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron

Neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons

Endorphins

"morphine within"--natural, opiatelike neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure.

Agonist

a molecule that, by binding to a receptor site, stimulates a response

Antagonist

a molecule that inhibits or blocks a neurotransmitter's action

endocrine system

the body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream

Hormones

chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues

psychoactive drugs

chemicals that affect the central nervous system and alter activity in the brain, causing changes in perceptions and mood

Depressants

drugs that reduce neural activity and slow bodily functions

Tolerance

the diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug's effect

Addiction

compulsive drug craving and use, despite adverse consequences

Withdrawl

the discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing the use of an addictive drug

Barbiturates

drugs that depress the activity of the central nervous system, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgment

Opioids

Any drug or agent with actions similar to morphine. They depress neural activity and temporarily lessening pain and anxiety

Stimulants

Drugs (such as caffeine, nicotine, and the more powerful amphetamines, cocaine, and Ecstasy) that excite neural activity and speed up body functions.

Hallucinogens

psychedelic ("mind-manifesting") drugs, such as LSD, that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input

Dopamine

A neurotransmitter associated with movement, attention and learning and the brain's pleasure and reward system.

Norepinephrine

A neurotransmitter involved in arousal, as well as in learning and mood regulation

GABA

An inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain.

Glutamate

A major excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in memory

Substance P

A neurotransmitter that is involved in the transmission of pain messages to the brain.

Acetylcholine

A neurotransmitter that enables learning and memory and also triggers muscle contraction

Adrenaline

a hormone secreted by the adrenal glands, especially in conditions of stress, increasing rates of blood circulation, breathing, and carbohydrate metabolism and preparing muscles for exertion.

Leptin

A hormone produced by adipose (fat) cells that acts as a satiety factor in regulating appetite.

Ghrelin

hormone secreted by empty stomach; sends "I'm hungry" signals to the brain

Melatonin

A hormone manufactured by the pineal gland that produces sleepiness.

Oxytocin

A hormone released by the posterior pituitary that stimulates uterine contractions during childbirth and milk ejection during breastfeeding.

Brainstem

the oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions

Medulla

an extension of the spinal cord into the skull that coordinates heart rate, circulation, and respiration

Reticular Activating System (RAS)

a dense network of neurons found in the core of the brain stem; it arouses the cortex and screens incoming information, sending it where it needs to go in the brain

Cerebellum

the "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input and coordinating movement output and balance

Limbic system

neural system located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives

Thalamus

the brain's sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla

Hypothalamus

A neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward.

Hippocampus

A neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage.

Amygdala

two lima bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion.

cerebral cortex

The intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center.

frontal lobes

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments

parietal lobe

A region of the cerebral cortex whose functions include processing information about touch.

occipital lobe

A region of the cerebral cortex that processes visual information

temporal lobe

An area on each hemisphere of the cerebral cortex near the temples that is the primary receiving area for auditory information

motor cortex

an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements

somatosensory cortex

area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations

association areas

areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking

corpus callosum

the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them

Neuroplasticity

the ability within the brain to constantly change both the structure and function of many cells in response to experience or trauma

contralateral hemispheric organization

Arrangement where the brain's right hemisphere controls the left side of the body and vice versa.

EEG (electroencephalogram)

An amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp.

fMRI (functional MRI)

A technique for revealing blood flow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. fMRI scans show brain function.

Broca's area

controls language expression - an area, usually in the left frontal lobe, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech.

Wernicke's area

a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe

Aphasia

impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke's area (impairing understanding).

lession

tissue destruction. A brain lesion is a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue

Case Studies

examination of individual subjects with unique brain injuries or conditions, provide detailed insights into the relationship between brain structures and functions (Phineas Gage, "H.M.")

consciousness

Our subjective awareness of ourselves and our environment

Blindsight

a condition in which a person can respond to a visual stimulus without consciously experiencing it

sleep

periodic, natural loss of consciousness--as distinct from unconsciousness resulting from a coma, general anesthesia, or hibernation

circadian rhythm

the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms (for example, of temperature and wakefulness) that occur on a 24-hour cycle

REM sleep

Rapid eye movement sleep, a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. Also known as paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active.

alpha waves

the relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state

NREM sleep

non-rapid eye movement sleep; encompasses all sleep stages except for REM sleep

Hallucinations

false sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus

hypnagogic sensations

bizarre experiences, such as jerking or a feeling of falling or floating weightlessly, while transitioning to sleep

delta waves

the large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep

insomnia

recurring problems in falling or staying asleep

Narcolepsy

A sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times.

sleep apnea

a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings