psych unit 8.1

goal

the cognitive representation of a desired state

motiviation

the psychological driving force that enables action in the pursuit of that goal

intrinsic motivation

motivation can come from the benefits associated with the process of pursuing a goal

extrinsic motivation

motivation can come from the benefits associated with achieving a goal

activation of goals

• goal pursuit and the motivations are products of personal characteristics and situational factors

• cues in a person’s immediate environment— including images, words, sounds, and the presence of other people—can activate, or prime, a goal.

• this activation can be conscious or nonconscious

Consequences of goal activation

• the activation of a goal and the accompanying increase in motivation can influence many aspects of behavior and judgment

• motivational states can even alter visual perception

• goals can exert a strong influence on how people evaluate the objects (and people) around them

• priming a goal can lead to behaviors that are consistent with the goal, even though the person isn’t necessarily aware of why

goal adoption

• commitment stems from the sense that a goal is both valuable and attainable

• we adopt goals that are highly likely to bring positive outcomes

• this process of committing to a goal can occur without much conscious deliberation

goal priming

• each goal is connected to other goals, concepts, and behavior

• each goal is connected to corresponding means—activities and objects that help us attain the goal

self regulation in goal pursuit 

the process through which individuals alter their perceptions, feelings, and actions in the pursuit of goal

2 stages of self-regulation

deliberative and implemental

deliberative phase

a person must decide which of many potential goals to pursue at a given point in time

implemental phase

• planning specific actions related to the goal

• a person tends to have a mindset conducive to the effective implementation of a goal through immediate action

2 self-regulatory orientations

prevention and promotion focus

prevention focus

• emphasizes safety, responsibility, and security needs, and views goals as “oughts”

• a goal is viewed as something they should be doing, and they tend to focus on avoiding potential problems (example: exercising to avoid health issues)

promotion focus

views goals as “ideals,” and emphasizes hopes, accomplishments, and advancement needs

cybernetic process of self-regulation

• self-regulation depends on feelings that arise from comparing actual progress to expected progress

  • a higher-than-expected rate of closing the discrepancy creates a cignal in the form of positive feelings

  • these positive feelings tend to reduce individuals’ efforts on the focal goal, and shift their focus to other goals

  • a lower-than-expected rate of closing the gap elicits negative feelings, which leads to greater effort investment on the focal goal.

highlighting one goal

after achieving a goal, when people interpret their previous actions as a sign of commitment to it, they tend to highlight the pursuit of that goal, prioritizing it and putting more effort toward it

balancing between goals

when people interpret their previous actions as a sign of progress, they tend to balance between the goal and other goals, putting less effort into the focal goal.

self-control

• the capacity to control impulses, emotions, desires, and actions in order to resist a temptation and protect a valued goal

• a process of self-regulation in contexts involving a clear trade-off between long-term interests and some form of immediate gratification 

Marshmallow study

• used to show self control as an innate ability

• japanese kids typically waited the full 15 mins

• U.S. kids typically ate the marshmallow by the 4 min mark

cultural lessons in self-control

• like the marshmallow study but instead of food they used gifts

• japanese children typically opened up the single gift by 5 min mark

• U.S. kids typically waited the full 15 min

self control as a limited resource

• the ability to exercise self-control can fluctuate from one context to the next

• exerting self-control reduces individuals’ capacity to exert more self-control in a consequent task — whether that task is in the same domain or a different one

ego depletion

the exhausation of resources from resisting a temptation

prerequisite of self-control

• people are more likely to identity a self-control conflict, and exercise self-control, when they think of a choice as part of a broader pattern of repeated behavior rather than as an isolated choice

counterbalancing temptation

• decreasing the value of temptations and increasing the value of goal-consistent objects or actions

• at times, individuals automatically activate goal-related thoughts in response to temptation, and inhibit temptation-related thoughts in the presence of goals cues.

what makes people adhere to a goal in any given context?

cues in the immediate environment can have a remarkable influence on the pursuit of goals to which people are already committed

how do we explain these cultural lessons in self-control effect?

• in japan it is customary to sit in front of one’s food, waiting for everyone to arrive before eating together

• the reverse is true for gifts → in japan, people tend to give gifts to one another regularly and open them immediately