world Englishes theorists

Kachru (1992)

3 circles of english model: while logical and offering a basic framework of understanding the relationships between varieties of englush, implies a hierarchy or varieties. kachru later revised model to show overlapping rather than concentric english varieties

Mollin (2006)

noted kachru’s model is unable to account for english as a lingua franca or as a component in creole and pidgin varieties

McArthur (1987)

circle of world englishes model: suggests local expansion and classifications but doesn’t allow for overlaps between varieties and theorises a non-specific world standard english

Gorlach (1988)

created a similar model to McArthur but didn’t include any aspects of EFL, excluded english varieties in europe and made provision for pidgins and creoles to be added to the model

Modiano (1999)

english as an international language model: recognises recent developments and identifies overlaps and equality between varieties of english but is vague, doesn’t specify its common core and still implies a degree of hierarchy between varieties

Strevens (1980)

world map of english model: identifies the relationship between different varieties of english, but offers a misleading account of the development of varieties and doesn’t identify inter-language connections

Schneider (2007)

dynamic model of post-colonial englishes: english varieties develop in the following process:

foundation - english first appears in a new colonial territory

exonormative stabilisation - speakers look to the colonial centre for language instruction

nativisation - the old and new languages become more closely linked

endonormative stabilisation - post-independence language varieties develop new standards and norms

differentiation - the new variety begins to develop internal regional and social differences

Widdowson (2002)

states that native english speakers should have no control over varieties of english developing around the world

Jenkins (2009) and Setter (2012)

presented the idea of the lingua franca core and put forward the idea that these should be the focus of english teaching

Graddol (1997)

takes the view that englishes spread across the world may lose momentum

McArthur (1998)

put forward the idea that english is changing so radically around the world that it may fragment into a family of languages

Ostler (2011)

links politics and language by suggesting that as british and american world power wanes, english will lose its status as a global lingua franca and instead technology will intervene allowing all languages to be understood by everyone

Saraceni (2015)

argues that english has not spread but has relocated and suggests that the de-anglicising of english cuts the psychological umbilical cord between britain and its former colonies

Beneke (2008)

puts forward the idea that the number of native english-speakers will have decreased to 300 million by 2020, and that by that time 80% of the world’s english-language interactions will be between non-native speakers

Bruthiaux (2008)

considers the non-regulated nature of english to be one of the strengths of the language, allowing different varieties of the language to develop in different directions to the extent that they are losing mutual intelligibility

Nerriere (2008)

hypothesises the existence of a non-native lingua franca Globish with a vocabulary of about 1500 words, and suggests that native english speakers should speak in simple sentences and avoid idioms when speaking to foreign users

Marckwardt (1972)

suggested that while some vowels continue to shift in english, consonants are unlikely to be altered in the future, citing the history of english as an example

Seidlhofer and Deterding (2008)

notes that verbal interactions between EFL speakers usually don’t distinguish between mass and countable nouns

Lim (2008)

stresses the ecology of language stressing both predictable and unpredictable change factors in language, stressing the internet as a particularly important example

Pagel (2008)

notes that key language divergence is preceded by a burst of rapid punctuational change using the development of pacific languages as an example

Crystal (2009)

E1L, E2L and EFL are losing their meaning as levels of fluence are becoming more diverse and children are growing up with EFL as their mother tongue

the status of english as a global language was unexpected latin, french and spanish have all been historically seen as more useful

english is often seen as a simple, logical language because it has little complex morphology but it also has a great deal of syntactic complexity

english’s global status due to the power of the people who speak it in all areas of life: WW1 put germany out of the running for the main global language

many post-colonial regions use english despite desire to leave behind the language of the oppressor but the use is continued because the area is linguistically diverse and english is equally hated; this english is then reclaimed through the incorporation of local customs and culture

Crystal

put forward the theory of bidialectilism suggesting a compromise between lingua franca forms and localised dialects, evidenced by the use of repertoires already in english-speakers around the world

Burchfield (1978)

suggests that british and american speakers have only a few decades before a loss of mutual intelligibility

Mufwene (2001)

believes that different types of colonies produced english in different ways

trade colonies developed pidgins

exploitation colonies saw english developed in higher education and politics as britain imported its own officials

settlement colonies had no need to import english as the settlers already spoke english

Phillipson (1992)

english has spread around the world primarily through ethnocentricity and educational policy

Pennycook (2001)

ethnocentricity was key in devaluing the local languages of colonised peoples