psychopathology

statistical infrequency definition

Occurs when an individual has a less common characteristic, for example being more depressed or less intelligent than most of the population.

deviation from social norms definition

Concerns behaviour that is different from the accepted standards of behaviour in a community or society

how can statistical infrequency be used to describe abnormailty

- according to the statistical definition any relatively unusual behaviour or characteristics can be called 'abnormal' and any usual behaviour is 'normal'

how is IQ and intellectual disability disorder an example of statistical infrequency

- we know that in human characteristics the majority of scores will cluster around the average, and the further above or below the average, the fewer will attain the score
- the average is called the normal distribution

how is deviation from social norms a definition of abnormality

- groups of people choose to define behaviour as abnormal on the basis that it offends their sense of what is 'acceptable' or the norm
- we make a collective judgement as a society about what is right

how can deviation from social norms differ in different cultures

- the norms are specific to the culture we live in
- social norms may be different for each generation and different in every in every culture, so there are relatively few behaviours that would be considered universally abnormal on the basis that they breach social norms

how is antisocial personality disorder an example of norms being specific to the culture we live in

- a person with antisocial personalality disorder (psychopathy) is impulsive, aggressive and irresponsible
- according to the DSM-5 one important symptom is an 'absence of prosocial internal standards associated with failure to conform to lawful and culturally normative ethical behaviour'
- this means we are making social judgement that psychopaths are abnormal as they dont conform to our moral standards. Psychopathic behaviour would be considered abnormal in a very wide range of cultures

strengths and weaknesses for statistical frequency as a definition for abnormality

strength \= - real world application due to strength of usefulness
limitation \= - unusual characteristics can be positive

how is real world application a strength for statistical frequency as a definition for abnormality

- statistical infrequency used in clinical practice, both as part of formal diagnosis and as a way to assess the severity of an individuals symptoms
- for example a diagnosis of intellectual disability disorder (IDD) requires an IQ of below 70
- this shows that the value of statistical infrequency criterion is useful in diagnostic and assessment processes

how is unusual characteristics can be positive a limitation for statistical frequency as a definition for abnormality

- infrequent characteristics can be positive as well as negative
- for every person with an IQ below 70 there is another with an IQ above 130, yet we wouldnt think of someone with a high IQ as abnormal
- similarly we wouldnt this of someone with very low depression score on the BDI as abnormal
- this shows that being far on one end of the psychological spectrum doesnt mean abnormality, meaning that although statistical infrequency can form part of assessment and diagnostic procedures, its never sufficient as the sole basis for defining abnormality

strengths and weaknesses for deviation from social norms as a definition for abnormality

strength \= - real world application due to the usefulness of social norms
limitation \= - cultural and situational relativism

how is real world application a strength for deviation from social norms as a definition for abnormality

- deviation from social norms is used in clinical practice
- for example, the key defining characteristics of antisocial personality disorder is the failure to conform to culturally acceptable ethical behaviour
- these signs of the disorder are all deviations from social norms
- such norms also play a part in the diagnosis of schizoptypical personality disorder, where the term 'strange' is used the characterise the thinking, behaviour and appearence of people with the disorder
- showing that deviation from social norms criterion has value in psychiatry

how is cultural and situational relativism a limitation for deviation from social norms as a definition for abnormality

- a person from one cultural group may label someone from another group as abnormal using their standards rather than the person's standards
- for example the experience of hearing voices is the norm in some cultures but would be seen as a sign of abnormality in most parts of the UK. Also within one cultural context social norms differ from one situation to another
- this means that is is difficult to judge deviation from social norms across different situations and cultures

failure to function adequately definition

Occurs when someone is unable to cope with ordinary demands of day-to-day living.

deviation from ideal mental health definition

Occurs when someone does not meet a set of criteria for good mental health

how is failure to function adequately a definition for abnormaility

- someone may cross the line of 'abnormal' and 'normal' at the point when they can no longer cope with the demands of everyday life
- we might decide that someone is not functioning adequately when they are unable to maintain basic standards of nutrition and hygiene
- we might also consider that they are no longer functioning adequately if they cannot hold down a job or maintain relationships with people around them

when did Rosenhan and Seligman propose someone is failing to function adequately

- when a person no longer conforms to standard interpersonal rules, for example maintaining eye contact and respecting personal space
- when a person experiences severe personal distress
- when a person become irrational or dangerous to themselves and others

how is deviation from ideal mental health a definition of abnormality

- a different way to look at normality and abnormality is to ignore the issues of what makes someone abnormal but instead think about what makes them normal
- in other words we consider deviation from ideal mental health
- once we have a picture we should be psychologically healthy then we can begin to identify who deviates from this ideal

what did Jahoda say ideal mental health looked like

- no symptoms or distress
- rational and can perceive ourselves accurately
- self-actualise
- can cope with stress
- have a realistic view of the world
- good self esteem and lack guilt
- independent of other people
- can successfully work, love and enjoy our leisure

strengths and limitations for failure to function adequately as a definition for abnormality

strength \= - represents a threshold for when people need professional help
limitation \= - discrimination and social control

how is represents a threshold for when people need professional help a strength for failure to function adequately as a definition for abnormality

- most of us have symptoms of mental disorder to some degree at some time
- according to the mental health charity mind, around 25% of people in the UK will experience a mental health problem in any given year
- however many people press on in the face of fairly severe symptoms which tends to be at the point that we cease to function adequately that people seek professional help or are noticed and referred for help by others
- this means that treatment and services can be targeted to those who need them most

how is discrimination and social control a limitation for failure to function adequately as a definition for abnormality

- it is easy to label non-standardised lifestyle choices as abnormal
- in practice it can be hard to say when someone is failing to function and when they have simply chosen to deviate from social norms
- this means that people who make unusual choices are at risk of being labelled abnormal and their freedom of choice may be restricted (e.g. people who seeks high risk leisure activities)

strengths and weaknesses for deviation from ideal mental health as a definition for abnormality

strength \= - a comprehensive definition due to the mental health criterion
limitation \= - may be culture bound as some mental health criterion may not apply to all cultures

how is a comprehensive definition due to the mental health criterion a strength for deviation from ideal mental health as a definition for abnormality

- Jahoda's concept of 'ideal mental health' includes a range of criteria for distinguishing mental health from mental disorder
- in fact it covers most of the reasons why we might seek help with mental health, this in turn means that individual's mental health can be discussed meaningfully with a range of professionals who might take different theoretical views
- this means that ideal mental health provides a checklist against which we can assess ourselves and others and discuss psychological issues with a range of professionals

how is the theory possibly being culture bound a limitation for deviation from ideal mental health as a definition for abnormality

- some of Jahoda's criteria for ideal mental health are firmly located in the context of the US and Europe generally
- in particular the concept of self actualisation would probably be dismissed as self indulgent in much of the world
- even within Europe there is quite a bit of variation in the value placed on personal independence, furthermore what defines success in our working, social and love-lives is very different in different cultures
- meaning that it is difficult to apply the concepts of ideal mental health from one culture to another

phobia definition

An irrational fear of an object or situation

behavioural definition

Ways in which people act

emotional definition

related to a persons feeling or mood

cognitive definition

Refers to the process of thinking - knowing, perceiving, believing

how does the DSM5 characterise phobias

- they characterise hobias as excessive fear and anxiety, triggered by an object, place or situation
- the extent of the fear is out of proportion to any real danger presented by the phobic stimulus

what are the three categories recognised by the DSM for phobias and related anxiety disorders

- specific phobia
- social anxiety (social phobia)
- agoraphobia

what is specific phobia

- phobia of an object, such as an animal or body part, or a situation such as flying or having an injection

what is social anxiety (social phobia)

phobia of a social situation such as public speaking or using a public toilet

what is agoraphobia

Phobia of being outside or in a public place

what are the 3 ways we respond to phobias

- panic
- avoidance
- endurance

what is panic in terms of responding to phobias

- a person with a phobia may panic in response to the presence of the phobic stimulus
- panic may involve a range of behaviours including crying, screaming or running away
- children may react slightly differently freezing,clinging or having a tantrum

what is avoidance in terms of responding to phobias

- unless the person is making conscious effort to face their fear they tend to go to a lot of effort to prevent coming into contact with the phobic stimulus - this can make it had to go about daily life
- for example someone with a fear of public toilets may have to limit the time they spend outside the home in relation to how long they can last without a toilet
- this in turn can interfere with work, education and social life

what is endurance in terms of responding to phobias

- the alternate behavioural response to avoidance is endurance
- this occurs when the person chooses to remain in the presence of the phobic stimulus
- for example a person with arachnaphobia might choose to remain in a room with a spider on the ceiling and keep a wary eye on it rather than leaving

what are the emotional characteristics of phobias

- anxiety
- fear
- emotional response is unreasonable

how is anxiety an emotional characteristic of phobias

- phobias are classed as anxiety disorders
- by definition then they involve an emotional response of anxiety, an unpleasant state of high arousal
- this prevents a person relaxing and makes it very difficult to experience any positive emotion
- anxiety can be long term

how is fear an emotional characteristic of phobias

- in everyday speech we might use the terms 'anxiety' and 'fear' interchangeably they do have distinct meanings
- Fear is the immediate and extremely unpleasant repsonce we experience when we encounter or think about a phobic stimulus
- its usually more intense but experienced in shorter periods than anxiety

how is the emotional response is unreasonable a characteristic of phobias

- the anxiety or fear is much greater than is 'normal' and disproportionate to any threat posed
- For example a person with arachnophobia will have a strong emotional response to a tiny spider - most people would respond in a less anxious way

what are the cognitive characteristics of phobias

- selective attention to the phobic stimulus
- irrational beliefs
- cognitive distortions

how is selective attention to the phobic stimulus a cognitive characteristic of phobias

- if a person can see the phobic stimulus it is hard to look away from it
- keeping our attention on something really dangerous is a good thing as it gives us the best chance of reacting quickly as a threat, but this isnt so useful when the fear is irrational
- A person with pogonophibia will struggle to concentrate on what they are doing if there is someone with a beard in the room

how is irrational beliefs a cognitive characteristic of phobias

- a person with a phobia may hold unfounded thoughts in relation to phobic stimuli e.g. that can easily be explained and dont have any basis in reality
- for example, social phobias can involve beliefs like 'I must always sound intelligent'
- this kind of belief increases the pressure on the person to perform well in social situations

how is cognitive distortions a cognitive characteristic of phobias

- the perceptions of a person with a phobia may be inaccurate and unrealistic
- for example someone with mycophobia sees mushrooms as disgusting, and ophidiophobic may see snakes as alien and aggressive looking

depression definition

A mental disorder characterised by low mood and low energy levels

what are the DSM-5 categories for depression

- major depressive disorder
- persistent depressive disorder
- disruptive dysregulation disorder
- premenstual dysphoric disorder

what is major depressive disorder characterised as

severe but often short-term depression

what is persistent depressive disorder characterised as

long term or recurring depression, including sustained major depression and what used to be called dysthymia

what is disruptive mood dyregulation disorder characterised as

childhood temper tantrums

what is premenstual dysphoric disorder characterised as

disruption to mood prior to and/or during menstruation

what are the behavioural characteristics of depression

- activity level
- disruption to sleep and eating behaviour
- aggression and self harm

how is anxiety level a behavioural characteristic of depression

- typically people with depression have reduced levels of energy, making them lethargic
- this has a knock on effect with people tending to withdraw from work, education and social life
- in extreme cases this can be so severe that the person cannot get out of bed
- in some cases depression can lead to the opposite effect - known as psychomotor agitation, agitated individuals struggle to relax and may end up pacing up and down a room

how is disruption to sleep and eating behaviour a behavioural characteristic of depression

- depression is associated with changes to sleeping behaviour
- a person may experience reduced sleep, particularly premature waking, or an increased need for sleep
- similarly appetite and eating may increase or decrease, leading to weight gain or loos
- such behaviours are disrupted by behaviour

how is aggression and self harm a behavioural characteristic of depression

- people with depression are often irritable and in some cases they can become verbally or physically aggressive
- this can have serious knock on effects on a number of aspects of their life
- for example, someone experiencing drepression might display verbal aggression by ending a relationship or quitting a job
- depression can also lead to physical aggression directed against the self - this includes self harm, often in the form of cutting or suicide attempts

what are the emotional characteristics of depression

- lowered mood
- anger
- lowered self-esteem

how is lowered mood an emotional characteristic of depression

- when we use the word depressed in everyday life we are usually describing having a lowered mood, or feeling sad-lowered mood is still a defining emotional element of depression but it is more pronounced than in the daily kind of experience of feeling lethargic and sad
- people with depression often describe themselves as 'worthless' and 'empty'

how is anger an emotional characteristic of depression

- although people with depression tend to experience more negative emotions and fewer positive ones during episodes of depression, this experience of negative emotion isnt limited to sadness
- people with depression also frequently experience anger, which can be directed at themselves or others
- on occasion such emotions lead to aggressive or self harming behaviour - which is why this characteristic appears under behavioural characteristics as well

how is lowered self esteem an emotional characteristic of depression

- self esteem is the emotional experience of how much we like ourselves
- people with depression tend to report reduced self esteem, in other words they like themselves less than usual
- this can be quite extreme, with some people with depression describing a sense of self loathing

what are the cognitive characteristics of depression

- poor concentration
- attending to and dwelling on the negative
- absolutist thinking

how is poor concentration a cognitive characteristic of depression

- depression is associated with poor levels of concentration
- the person may find themselves unable to stick with a task as they usually would, or they might find it hard to make decisions that they would normally find straightforward
- poor concentration and poor decision making are likely to interfere with the individuals work

how is attending to and dwelling on the negative a cognitive characteristic of depression

- when experiencing a depressive episode people are inclined to pay more attention to negative aspects of a situation and ignore the positives
- in other words they tend to see the glass half empty rather than half full
- people with depression also have a bias towards recalling unhappy events rather than happy ones - the opposite bias that most people have when not depressed

how is absolutist thinking a cognitive characteristic of depression

- most situations are not all good or all bad, but when a person is depressed they tend to think in these terms
- this is sometimes called 'black and white thinking'
- this means that when a situation is unfortunate they tend to see it as an absolute disaster

OCD definition

A condition characterised by obsessions and/or compulsive behaviour. Obsessions are cognitive whereas compulsions are behavioural

what are the 4 categories of OCD in the DSM-5

- OCD
- trichotillomania
- hoarding disorder
- excoriation disorder

what is OCD according to the DSM5

- characterised by either obsessions and/or compulsions
- most people with a diagnosis of OCD have both obsessions and compulsions

what is Trichotillomania according to the DSM5

compulsive hair-pulling

what is hoarding disorder according to the DSM5

the compulsive gathering of possession and the inability to part with anything, regardless of its value

what is excoriation disorder according to the DSM5

compulsive skin picking

what are the behavioural characteristics of the OCD

- compulsions and repetitive
- compulsions reduce anxiety
- avoidance

how is compulsions being repetitive a behavioural characteristic of OCD

- typically people with OCD feel compelled to repeat a behaviour, a common example is handwashing
- other common compulsive repetitions include counting, praying and tidying groups such as CDs

how is compulsions reducing anxiety a behavioural characteristic of OCD

- around 10% of people with OCD show compulsive behaviour alone - they have no obsessions, just a general sense of irrational anxiety
- however for the vast majority, compulsive behaviours are performed in an attempt to manage the anxiety produced by obsessions
- for example compulsive handwriting is carried out as a response to an obsessive fear of germs
- compulsive checking, for example that a door is locked or a gas appliance is switched off, is in response to the obsessive though that it might have been left unsecured

how is avoidance a behavioural characteristic for OCD

- the behaviour of people with OCD may also be characterised by their avoidance as the attempt to reduce anxiety by keeping away from situations that trigger it
people with OCD tend to try to manage their OCD by avoiding situations that trigger anxiety
- for example compulsive handwashing is carried out as a response to an obsessive fear of germs
- however this avoidance can lead people to avoid very ordinary situations, such as emptying their rubbish bins, and this can in itself interfere with leading a regular life

what is the cycle of OCD

- obsessive thought
- anxiety
- compulsive behaviour
- temporary relief

what are the emotional characteristics of OCD

- Anxiety and distress
- accompanying depression
- guilt and disgust

how is anxiety and distress and emotional characteristic of OCD

- OCD is regarded as a particularly unpleasant emotional experience because of the powerful anxiety that accompanies both obsessions and compulsions
- Obsessive thoughts are unpleasant and frightening, and the anxiety that goes with these can e overwhelming
- the urge to repeat a behaviour creates anxiety

how is accompanying depression an emotional characteristic of OCD

- OCD is often accompanied by depression so anxiety can be accompanied by low mood and lack of enjoyment in activities
- compulsive behaviour tends to bring some relief from anxiety but this is temporary

how is guilt and disgust an emotional characteristic of OCD

- as well as anxiety and depression, OCD sometimes involves other negative emotions such as irrational guilt, for example over minor moral issues, or disgust, which may be directed against something external like dirt or at the self

what are the cognitive characteristics of OCD concerned with

- the way people with OCD process information
- people with OCD are usually plagued with obsessive thoughts but they also adopt cognitive strategies to deal with these

what are the cognitive characteristics of OCD

- obsessive thoughts
- cognitive coping strategies
- insight into excessive anxiety

how are obsessive thoughts a cognitive characteristic with OCD

- for around 90% of people with OCD the major cognitive feature of their condition is obsessive thoughts
- these vary considerably from person to person but are always unpleasant
- examples of recurring thoughts are worries of being contaminated by dirt and germs, or certainty that a door has been left unlocked and that intruders will enter through it

how is cognitive coping strategies a cognitive characteristic of OCD

- obsessions are the major cognitive aspect of OCD, but people also respond by adopting cognitive coping strategies to deal with the obsessions
- for example, a religious person tormented by obsessive guilt may respond by praying or meditating
- this may help manage anxiety but can make the person appear abnormal to others and can distract from everyday tasks

how is insight into excessive anxiety a cognitive characteristic of OCD

- people with OCD are aware that their obsessions and compulsions are not rational, in fat this is necessary for a diagnosis of OCD
-if someone really believed their obsessive thoughts were based on reality that would be a symptom of quite different form of mental disorder
- however in spite of this insight people with OCD experience catastrophic thoughts about the worst case scenarios that might result if their anxieties were justified
- they also tend to be hypervigilant i.e. they maintain constant alertness and keep attention focused on potential hazards

behavioural approach definition

a way of explaining behaviour in terms of what is observable and in terms of learning

two-process model definition

an explanation for the onset and persistence of disorders that create anxiety, such as phobias.

what are the two processes in the two-process model

- classical conditioning for onset
- operant conditioning for persistence

classical conditioning definition

learning by association. Occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired together - an unconditioned (unlearned) stimulus (UCS) and a new 'neutral' stimulus (NS). The neutral stimulus eventually produces the same response that was first produced by the UCS alone

operant conditioning definition

a form of learning in which behaviour is shaped and maintained by its consequences. Possible consequences of behaviour include positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement and punishment

what did Mowrer suggest was the cause of phobias being acquired

by classical conditioning and is then maintained due to operant conditioning

how did Watson and Rayner study acquisition by classical conditioning

- they created a phobia in a 9 month old Little Albert
- he showed no unusual anxiety at the start of the study when he was shown a white rat and had to play with it
- as the researchers set up to create a phobia, every time the rat was presented a loud frightening noise was created by banging an iron bar near Alberts ear
- the fear is then generalised to similar objects

how did the loud noise create a phobia for little Albert in Watson and Rayner's study on classical conditioning

- the noise is the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) which creates the unconditioned response (UCR) of fear
- when the rat (neutral stimulus NS) and the UCS are encountered close together in time the NS becomes associated with the UCS and both produce the fear response
- as Albert now shows fear when shown the rat, the rat is now a conditioned stimulus (CS) that produces the conditioned response (CR) of fear

how did Mowrer explain phobias being long lasting in terms of operant conditioning

- operant conditioning happens when our behaviour is reinforced (rewarded) or punished
- reinforcement tends to increase the frequency of behaviour, this is true of both negative reinforcement and positive reinforcement
- in the case of negative reinforcement an individual avoids a situation that is unpleasant - such a behaviour results in a desirable consequence, which means the behaviour will be repeated
- Mowrer suggested that whenever we avoid a phobic stimulus we successfully escape the fear and anxiety that we would have experienced if we had remained there - this reduction in fear reinforces the avoidance and so the phobia is maintained

strengths and weaknesses of the two process model as an explanation for phobias

strength \= - real world application in exposure therapies
- links between phobias and traumatic experiences
limitation \= - doesnt account for cognitive aspects of phobias

how is real world application in exposure therapies a strength of the two process model as an explanation for phobias

- the distinctive element of the two process model is the idea that phobias are maintained by avoidance of the phobic stimulus
- this is important in explaining why people with phobias benefit from being exposed to the phobic stimulus
- once the avoidance behaviour is prevented it ceases to be reinforced by the experience of anxiety reduction and avoidance therefore declines
- in behavioural terms the phobia is the avoidance behaviour so when this avoidance is prevented the ohobia is cured
- this shows the value of the two process approach because it identifies a means of treating phobias

how is links between phobias and traumatic experiences a strength for the two process model as an explanation for phobias

- the Little Albert study illustrates how a frightening experience involving a stimulus can lead to a phobia of the stimulus
- more systematic evidence comes from another study in which the researcher found 73% of people with a fear of dental treatment had experienced a traumatic experience, mostly involving destiny
- this can be compared to a control group of people with low dental anxiety where only 21% had experienced a traumatic event
- confirming that the association between stimulus and an unconditioned response does lead to the development of a phobia

how is not accounting for cognitive aspects of phobias a limitation for the two process model explaining phobias

- behavioural explanations are geared towards explaining behaviour
- in the case of phobias the key behaviour is avoidance of the phobic stimulus
- however we know phobias arent simply avoidance responses - they also have a significant cognitive component
- for example, people hold irrational beliefs about the phobic stimulus
- it explains avoidance behaviour but doesnt offer an adequate explanation for phobic conditions
- meaning the two process model doesnt completely explain the symptoms of phobias

systematic desensitisation (SD) definition

a behavioural therapy designed to reduce an unwanted response, such as anxiety. SD involves drawing up a hierarchy of anxiety-provoking situations related to a persons phobic stimulus, teaching the person to relax and then exposing them to phobic situations. The person works their way through the hierarchy whilst maintaining relaxation

flooding definition

a behavioural therapy in which a person with a phobia is exposed to an extreme form of a phobic stimulus in order to reduce anxiety triggered by that stimulus. This takes place across a small number of long therapy sessions

what is systematic desensitisation

- a behavioural therapy designed to gradually reduce phobic anxiety through the principle of classical conditioning. If a person can learn to relax in the presence of the phobic stimulus they will be cured
- a new response to the phobic stimulus is learned - this different response is called counterconditioning