Unit 1 APES

organism

living thing that can function on its own

species

organisms are similar in genetic makeup, chemistry, and behavior; are able to interbreed and produce offspring

intraspecific

within the same species

interspecific

between different species

population

organisms of the same species that interact with each other and occupy a specific area

community

populations of different species

ecological niche

area within a habitat occupied by an organism and the function of that organism within its ecological community

characteristics of a niche

habitat, interactions with biotic and abiotic factors, role in food web, types/amounts of resources available

generalist species

1) able to survive on wide variety of food

2) able to withstand a wide range of environmental conditions

3) live in broad niches

4) ex: cockroaches, humans, mice

specialist species

1) specific/limited number of prey

2) prone to extinction; sensitive to environmental change

3) live in narrow niches

4) ex: giant pandas, koalas, mountain gorillas

amensalism

symbiotic relationship where one species suffers and the other species is not affected

commensalism

symbiotic relationship where one organism benefits and the other is not affected

competition

driving force of evolution for food, mating partners, or territory; intraspecifc OR interspecific

mutualism

symbiotic relationship where both species benefit

parasitism

symbiotic relationship where one species benefits and the other species suffers

predation

hunt and kill prey; opportunistic predators kill and eat almost everything vs specialist predators only prey upon certain organisms

saprotrophism

saprotrophs obtain their nutrients from dead/decaying plants/animals through absorption of soluble organic compounds

law of tolerance

the existence, abundance, and distribution of species depend on the tolerance level of each species to both physical and chemical factors

limiting factor

any abiotic factors the limits the growth of a population

predator-prey relationship

based on a feeding relationship between two species: if the species rapidly multiplies, the number of predators increases until the predators eventually eat so many that the prey population dwindles

morphological partitioning

two species share the same resource but evolved slightly different structures to utilize the same resource

spatial partitioning

competing species use the same resource by occupying different habitats within the range of occurrence of the resource

temporal partitioning

two species eliminate direct competition by utilizing the same resource at different times

deserts

defined by amount of rainfall they receive, not temperature; make up about 20% of earth’s surface and occur where rainfall is less than 20 inches a year

desert soil

abundant inorganic nutrients, but little to no organic matter

desert plant characteristics: succulents

1) deep roots to tap groundwater

2) open stomata at night

3) shallow roots to collect and store water after rainfall

4) small surface areas exposed to sunlight

5) vertical orientation to minimize sun exposure

6) waxy leaves to minimize transpiration

desert plant characteristics: wildflowers

1) dependent on water for germination

2) have short life spans

3) perform entire life cycle in single growing season

4) store biomass in seeds

desert animal characteristics

1) generally small

2) often nocturnal

3) have small surface area

4) spend time in underground burrows where it is cooler

aestivation

summer hibernation: common in deserts

major environmental threats to deserts

1) global warming: increasing droughts

2) grazing livestock: destroys plants and animals

3) higher temperatures: producing increased wildfires

4) irrigation: too high of salt levels to support plants

5) nuclear waste: dumped in deserts and used as nuclear testing grounds

6) off-road recreation: destroy habitats

7) residential development

SOLUTIONS to desert environmental threats

1) dig artificial grooves in ground to retain rainfall and trap windblown seeds

2) find new ways to rotate crops to protect fragile soil

3) only use off-read vehicles on designated roads and trails

4) plant leguminous plants that extract nitrogen from air and fix it in the ground to restore soil fertility

5) plant sand-fixing bushes and trees

6) use existing water resources more efficiently and better control salinization

forests

most dominant ecosystems and cover 1/3 of Earth’s land; account for 75% of gross primary productivity and plant biomass on Earth

forest layers: closed canopy

tree crowns cover more than 20% of the ground’s surface; majority of forest is closed canopy (80%)

forest layers: open canopy

tree crowns cover less than 20% of ground surface

tropic rainforests

decomposition is rapid and soils subject to heavy leaching, distinct seasonality, large biodiversity, near the equator, evenly distributed precipitation, nutrient-poor soil, warm-hot temperature, multilayered and continuous trees canopy, tall trees that are mostly evergreens

major environmental threats to tropical rainforests

1) over half have already been destroyed

2) acid rain: causes trees/plants to produce fewer seeds

3) trees cut for timber and pulp; land cleared for agriculture

4) governments/industries clear-cut to make roads

5) human intrusion: causes disruption to wildlife and flora

6) hydroelectric projects: flood acres

7) nonnative organisms: compete for resources earth native organisms

8) mining operations: clear forests to build roads and dig mines

9) slash and burn techniques: used to clear land for raising cattle and cropland

10) wildfires: destroy millions of acres worldwide every year

SOLUTIONS to tropical rainforest environmental threats

1) administer government moratoriums

2) create sustainable-logging regimes

3) encourage locals to harvest products

4) start educational campaigns for preservation

temperate deciduous forests

occur in eastern N. America, northeastern Asia, and western/central Europe; have distinct seasonality and moderate climate

temperate deciduous forest characteristics

1) 30-60 inches of annual precipitation

2) fertile soil

3) moderately dense tree canopy

4) broad-leaved trees

major environmental threats to temperate deciduous forests

1) acid rain

2) climate change

3) spread of invasive species

4) strip-mining and clear-cutting

SOLUTIONS to temperate deciduous forest environmental threats

1) increase renewable energy opportunities

2) initiate a “user tax” onto nonrenewable energy sources

3) lobby legislators to require restoring land that previously was strip-mined

4) provide tax incentives for solar power on homes

temperate coniferous forests

found in regions of world with warm summers, cool winters, and adequate rainfall; common in coastal areas; consist of overstay and understory

special adaptation of coniferous forests

1) conical-shaped treads enhance snow shedding and prevent loss of branches

2) needs retained throughout year to start photosynthesis ASAP

3) winter hibernation is common

4) birds have thick layers to protect them from cold weather extremes

5) some animals migrate to warmer climates during winter

major environmental threats to temperate coniferous forests

1) acid rain

2) clear-cutting

3) excessive trapping and hunting

4) global warming

5) highway construction

SOLUTIONS to temperate coniferous forest environmental threats

1) “zero deforestation”

2) maximize use of recycled wood, pulp, paper, and fiber

3) respect indigenous peoples’ rights to traditional lands and self-determination

taiga

found in northern Eurasia, N. America, Scandinavia, and 2/3 of Siberia; cold-tolerant conifers, cold weather, wet/thin soil, peat, short summers and long winters

major environmental threats to taigas

1) animals being hunted for fur

2) hydroelectric power plants

3) gas and oil exploration

4) road building

5) plantation forestry

SOLUTIONS to taiga environmental threats

1) adopt sustainable forestry practices

2) limit road construction

3) limit tourism/respect local cultures

4) increase alternative energy options

savanna

grassland covering africa, australia, S. america, and india; warm climate, heavy rainfall, drought/wildfire following rainfall season, pourous soil, open landscape

temperate grassland

covering S. africa, argentina, and russia; hot summers/cold winters, season drought, wildfires, deep/dark soil

major environmental threats to grasslands

1) global warming

2) desertification

3) urban development

4) overgrazing

5) soil salinization

SOLUTIONS to grassland environmental threats

1) dry-season burning

2) pant trees as windbreaks

3) protect/restore wetlands

4) rotate agricultural crops

arctic tundra

encircling N. pole; cold/desert-like conditions, little rainfall, nutrient-poor soil, low biodiversity

alpine tundra

located on mountains; 180 day growing season, well drained, cold climate

major environmental threats to tundra

1) air pollution

2) gas/oil exploration

3) invasive species

4) melting permafrost

5) oil spills

6) ozone depletion

SOLUTIONS to tundra environmental threats

1) moving away from fossil fuels

2) creating refuges for native species

antarctic

coldest climate on earth, little snow (classified as a desert), low humidity, glacial ice

major environmental threats to antarctic

1) climate change

2) oil/gas exploration

3) fishing

4) invasive species

4) oceanic acidification

5) pollution

6) tourism

SOLUTIONS to antartic environmental threats

1) address climate change

2) limit fishing

3) prevent the introduction of invasive species

great ocean conveyor belt

circulation system that moves warm and cold water around the planet driven by thermohaline; cold, salty water to bottom and warm water to top

ocean zones: littoral zone

closest to shore; sand dunes, large biodiversity

ocean zones: neretic (sublittoral) zone

edge of continental shelf; covered with well-oxygenated water (suitable for photosynthesis), high primary production

ocean zones: photic zone

uppermost layer ; 1% surface sunlight is available; photosynthesis, 90% of all aquatic life live here

coral: fringing reefs

grow near coastline; most common reef

coral: barrier reefs

parallel to coastline but separated by deeper/wider lagoons

coral: atolls

rings of coral protecting lagoons and located in the middle of the sea

major environmental threats to coral

1) coastal pollution

2) excessive ocean acidity

3) overfishing

4) rising ocean temperatures

SOLUTIONS to coral environmental threats

1) limit non-biodegradable plastic

2) enforce international treaties that ban sale of products derived from endangered species

3) reduce climate change

processes that form lakes

1) advance and/or retreat of glacier

2) volcanic craters and calderas

3) erosion in river valleys (oxbow)

4) no natural outlet for water to evaporate rapidly

5) tectonic uplift of a mountain range

lake inputs

1) manmade sources; constructed for hydroelectric power, recreation, industry/agriculture use, domestic water supply

2) precipitation

3) runoff

biological oxygen demand (BOD)

amount of oxygen used by decomposers to break down a specific amount of organic matter

lake zones: benthic zone

bottom of lake; organisms tolerate cool temperatures and low oxygen levels

lake zones: limnetic zone

open surface water, further from shores; produces food and oxygen that supports most of a lake’s consumers

lake zones: littoral zone

shallow, close to shore; rooted and floating plants flourish

lake zones: profundal zone

deep, no light, no photosynthesis; low oxygen levels

oligotrophic (young lake)

deep, cold, small surface area, nutrient-poor, few phytoplankton, rocky bottom, high oxygen concentration, cold-water edfish, clear water; ex: Lake Superior

mesotrophic (middle-aged lake)

moderate nutrients moderate phytoplankton, reasonably productive, sandy bottom, cold/warm-watered fish, clear water; ex: Lake Ontario

eutrophic (old lake)

shallow, warm, large surface area, nutrient-rich, phytoplankton, murky water, high organic matter, flat shorelines, aquatic weeds, little oxygen; ex: Lake Erie

fall turnover

water mixes from top to bottom due to changes in temperature and density; surface water cools and becomes denser, causing it to sink and mix with the deeper water

spring turnover

as ice melts and the water warms up, the water at the surface becomes denser and sinks to the bottom, while the water at the bottom rises to the surface; mixing of water layers brings oxygen and nutrients to the bottom of the lake

wetlands

area that was covered with water at some point and supports aquatic plant; saltwater, freshwater, or brackish

wetland ecological services

1) absorbing excess water from storm surges

2) acting as carbon sinks

3) recreational areas

wetland degradation: agriculture

lowers water table and dries out wetland; salinization and soil compaction

wetland degradation: commercial fishing

depletion of native species and affects food webs

wetland degradation: dams/levees

prevents replenishing lost sediments

wetland degradation: development

increases anthropogenic pollution and freshwater is depleted

wetland degradation: grazing

soil compaction, vegetation removal, streambank destabilization

wetland degradation: invasive species

native species cannot compete

wetland degradation: logging

decreases biodiversity, destroys habitats, increases flooding

wetland degradation: mining

deposite in floodplain

wetland degradation: pumping groundwater

loss of vegetation

wetland degradation: recreation

noise pollution

wetland degradation: roads/railroads

narrow floodplain, increase flooding

river/stream zones: source zone

contains headwaters, clear water, little sediment

river/stream zones: transition zone

contains slower, warmer, wider, and lower-elevation moving streams

river/stream zones: floodplain zone

murky and warm water due to large amounts of sediments and nutrients

riparian areas

lands adjacent to creeks, lakes, rivers, and streams that support vegetation dependent upon free water in soil

carbon cycle

process by which carbon is exchanged between the atmosphere, oceans, and living organisms; carbon is taken up by plants during photosynthesis and released back into the atmosphere through respiration and released into the atmosphere through the burning of fossil fuels

carbon sink: plant matter

portion of atmospheric carbon removed through photosynthesis

carbon sink: terrestrial biosphere

forests store about 90% of the planet’s above ground carbon and 75% of soil carbon