AP Art History Review

Apollo 11 Stones

• Content: Charcoal drawings of animal figures (likely feline or therianthropic).

• Function: Possibly ritualistic; meant to express or record spiritual beliefs or hunting practices.

• Context: Namibia, c. 25,500–25,300 BCE; one of the oldest known representational artworks; found in a rock shelter.

• Patron: Unspecified; created by early humans for ceremonial purposes.

Great Hall of Bulls

• Content: Large-scale images of bulls, horses, and other animals; dynamic use of contour and twisted perspective.

• Function: Likely ritualistic or ceremonial; possibly to ensure successful hunts or tell stories.

• Context: Lascaux, France, c. 15,000–13,000 BCE; Paleolithic; located deep within cave systems, suggesting importance.

• Patron: Paleolithic humans, likely hunter-gatherers.

Camelid sacrum in the shape of a canine

• Content: A sacrum bone (from a camelid, possibly an extinct llama) carved to resemble a canine head.

• Function: Unknown, possibly spiritual or shamanistic significance; sacrum seen as sacred.

• Context: Tequixquiac, Mexico, c. 14,000–7,000 BCE; found in a prehistoric context, symbolizing early Mesoamerican belief systems.

• Patron: Unspecified; created by early Mesoamerican peoples.

Running horned women

• Content: Painted figure of a female with horns, possibly a deity or shaman; adorned with body paint and ceremonial dress.

• Function: May represent a goddess, ritual participant, or supernatural figure.

• Context: Tassili n’Ajjer, Algeria, c. 6,000–4,000 BCE; Neolithic; rock painting reflecting early African religious or ceremonial life.

• Patron: Neolithic Saharan peoples.

Beaker with ibex motifs

• Content: Painted ceramic beaker with stylized animals: ibex, birds, and dogs.

• Function: Funerary object; found in graves; used in burial rituals.

• Context: Susa, Iran, c. 4,200–3,500 BCE; Neolithic; reflects early urban culture and artistic stylization.

• Patron: Early inhabitants of Susa.

Anthropomorphic stele

• Content: Upright stone slab with simplified human figure, possibly wearing a robe and bearing weapons.

• Function: Grave marker or commemorative stele.

• Context: Arabian Peninsula, c. 4,000 BCE; pre-Islamic Arabia; suggests early burial customs and memorial art.

• Patron: Pre-Islamic Arabian cultures.

Jade cong

• Content: Square outer section with circular inner hole; incised decorative faces/motifs (possibly spirits or ancestors).

• Function: Ritual object placed in tombs; symbolic of earth and heaven.

• Context: Liangzhu culture, China, c. 3,300–2,200 BCE; Neolithic; jade was prized for its durability and spiritual value.

• Patron: Elites of the Liangzhu culture.

Stonehenge

• Content: Large circle of megalithic stones arranged in concentric rings; aligned with solstices.

• Function: Likely ceremonial or astronomical; used for rituals or as a calendar.

• Context: Wiltshire, UK, c. 2,500–1,600 BCE; Neolithic to Bronze Age; built over generations.

• Patron: Neolithic and Bronze Age peoples of Britain.

The Ambum Stone

• Content: Greywacke stone carved into the shape of an anteater or echidna; highly stylized and detailed.

• Function: Unknown, possibly religious or ritualistic, maybe used as a mortar or ceremonial object.

• Context: Ambum Valley, Papua New Guinea, c. 1,500 BCE; reflects early Oceanic spiritual life.

• Patron: Prehistoric inhabitants of New Guinea.

Tlatilco female figure

• Content: Ceramic figure with two faces, wide hips, small waist; exaggerated feminine features.

• Function: Possibly fertility figure or related to duality/death-life cycles.

• Context: Central Mexico (Tlatilco), c. 1,200–900 BCE; pre-Olmec culture.

• Patron: Early Mesoamerican societies.

Terra cotta fragment

• Content: Piece of pottery with stamped geometric patterns (e.g., concentric circles, curved lines).

• Function: Part of a utilitarian object (pot); also holds decorative and symbolic value.

• Context: Lapita culture, Solomon Islands, c. 1,000 BCE; early Polynesian navigation and settlement culture.

• Patron: Lapita culture, ancestors of Polynesians.

White Temple and its Ziggurat

• Content: A raised platform (ziggurat) with a temple on top; built from mud brick.

• Function: Religious; temple to Anu (sky god); only priests could enter; connected heaven and earth.

• Context: Uruk (modern-day Warka, Iraq), Sumerian, c. 3,500–3,000 BCE; shows early organized religion and city planning.

• Patron: The Sumerian city-state of Uruk.

Palette of King Narmer

• Content: Carved stone slab showing King Narmer uniting Upper and Lower Egypt; includes registers, hierarchic scale, and symbolic animals.

• Function: Ceremonial; possibly used to grind cosmetics for a deity statue; propaganda tool.

• Context: Predynastic Egypt, c. 3,000–2,920 BCE; early use of narrative art and Egyptian conventions.

• Patron: Likely commissioned by or for the ruling class, possibly Narmer himself.

Statue of Votive figures

• Content: Stylized male and female figures with clasped hands and wide eyes, made from gypsum, shell, and black limestone.

• Function: Placed in temples as surrogates for worshippers; eternal prayer to gods.

• Context: Eshnunna (modern Tell Asmar, Iraq), Sumerian, c. 2,700 BCE; reflects devotion and role of religion in daily life.

• Patron: Sumerian elite or temple-goers who could afford them.

Seated Scribe

• Content: Painted limestone statue of a man seated with papyrus scroll; realistic body, alert expression.

• Function: Funerary; placed in tomb to serve the deceased in the afterlife.

• Context: Saqqara, Egypt, Old Kingdom, c. 2,620–2,500 BCE; reflects status of scribes and value of literacy.

• Patron: Likely commissioned by or for the individual scribe represented.

Standard of Ur from the royal tombs

• Content: Wooden box inlaid with shell, lapis lazuli, and red limestone; two sides labeled "War" and "Peace" with registers showing scenes of battle and banquet.

• Function: Possibly a musical instrument, a storage box, or a standard (military/ceremonial); illustrates social order.

• Context: Ur, Sumerian, c. 2,600–2,400 BCE; from royal tombs; demonstrates class hierarchy and storytelling.

• Patron: Commissioned by or for the elite class or rulers of Ur.

Great Pyramids (Menkaura, Khafre, Khufu) and Great Sphinx

• Content: Three massive limestone pyramids for pharaohs' tombs; Sphinx (lion body, human head) guards Khafre's pyramid.

• Function: Funerary complexes; ensured pharaohs’ afterlife; symbolized divine power.

• Context: Giza, Egypt, Old Kingdom, c. 2,550–2,490 BCE; displays monumental architecture and Egyptian cosmology.

• Patron: Pharaohs Khufu (largest), Khafre (with Sphinx), and Menkaura.

The code of Hammurabi

• Content: Tall basalt stele with cuneiform inscriptions detailing 282 laws; relief at top shows Hammurabi receiving laws from Shamash (sun god).

• Function: Public law code; reinforced king’s divine right to rule and social order.

• Context: Babylon (modern Iran), Babylonian, c. 1,792–1,750 BCE; earliest known legal code; reflects centralized authority.

• Patron: Hammurabi, king of Babylon.

Temple of Amun-re and Hypostyle Hall

• Content: Large temple with massive stone columns, pylons, and sunken reliefs of pharaohs and gods.

• Function: Religious temple for worship of Amun-Re; used for rituals and festivals.

• Context: Karnak, Egypt; New Kingdom, c. 1550–1250 BCE; reflects power of pharaohs and importance of Amun.

• Patron: Multiple pharaohs, especially Seti I and Ramses II.

Akhenaten, Nefertiti, and Three Daughters

• Content: Carved limestone relief showing royal family under Aten’s sun rays; intimate, informal scene.

• Function: Private devotional image; promoted new monotheistic religion.

• Context: Amarna Period, c. 1353–1336 BCE; break from traditional Egyptian religion and art.

• Patron: Akhenaten.

King Menkaura and Queen

King Menkaura and Queen

• Content: Graywacke statue of king and queen standing together; idealized, frontal, calm expressions.

• Function: Funerary statue to house the ka (spirit) in afterlife.

• Context: Old Kingdom, c. 2490–2472 BCE; symbolizes eternal rule and divine kingship.

• Patron: Menkaura.

Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut

• Content: Terraced stone temple with ramps, colonnades, and reliefs of divine birth and trade missions.

• Function: Honored Hatshepsut and the gods; site for offerings and ceremonies.

• Context: New Kingdom, c. 1473–1458 BCE; female pharaoh asserting power through art.

• Patron: Hatshepsut.

Tutankhamun's Tomb, intermost coffin

• Content: Solid gold coffin with inlay; shows king with crook and flail, symbols of kingship.

• Function: Burial coffin for the pharaoh; ensured safe journey to afterlife.

• Context: New Kingdom, c. 1323 BCE; tomb found mostly intact in 1922.

• Patron: Tutankhamun.

Last judgement of Hu-Nefer, from his tomb

• Content: Painted papyrus scroll showing Hu-Nefer's soul being judged by Osiris; includes scales, Anubis, and Thoth.

• Function: Guide for the dead through the afterlife; helped ensure safe passage.

• Context: New Kingdom, c. 1275 BCE; part of funerary tradition in Egypt.

• Patron: Hu-Nefer, a royal scribe and official.

Lamassu from the citadel of Sargon II

• Content: Winged human-headed bull with five legs; carved from limestone.

• Function: Guardian figure placed at palace gate to ward off evil and show power.

• Context: Neo-Assyrian, c. 720–705 BCE; from Dur Sharrukin (modern Iraq).

• Patron: King Sargon II.

Athenian agora
Archiac through Hellenistic Greek

• Content: Open public space with temples, stoas, and administrative buildings.

• Function: Marketplace and civic center for politics, religion, and social life.

• Context: Athens, Greece; c. 600 BCE–150 CE; heart of democratic life.

• Patron: Various Athenian leaders and city officials over time.

Anavysos Kouros

• Content: Marble statue of idealized nude young man in rigid stance; inscription honors a fallen warrior.

• Function: Grave marker for a young warrior named Kroisos.

• Context: Archaic Greece, c. 530 BCE; reflects ideal male form and funerary art.

• Patron: Likely the family of Kroisos.

Peplos Kore from the Acropolis

• Content: Painted marble statue of a standing young woman wearing a peplos; stylized hair and Archaic smile.

• Function: Votive offering to Athena (or another goddess).

• Context: Archaic Greece, c. 530 BCE; found on the Acropolis in Athens.

• Patron: Unknown individual worshipper.

Sarcophagus of the Spouses

• Content: Terracotta sarcophagus with reclining man and woman; both have stylized features and Archaic smiles.

• Function: Funerary container; reflects belief in afterlife and status of women.

• Context: Etruscan, c. 520 BCE; found in Cerveteri, Italy.

• Patron: Likely a wealthy Etruscan couple or family.

Audience Hall of Darius and Xerxes

• Content: Large columned hall with carved reliefs of delegates bringing tribute to the king.

• Function: Reception hall for ceremonies and tribute to the Persian king.

• Context: Persepolis, Iran; Persian Empire, c. 520–465 BCE; showed power and diversity of the empire.

• Patron: Darius I (started), completed by Xerxes I.

Temple of Minerva and sculpture of Apollo

• Content: Etruscan temple made of wood and mudbrick; Apollo sculpture (terracotta) stood on rooftop.

• Function: Temple worship dedicated to Minerva; Apollo statue was part of mythological group.

• Context: Etruscan, c. 510–500 BCE; shows Greek influence and local tradition.

• Patron: Likely Etruscan priests or ruling elite of Veii.

Tomb of the Triclinium

• Content: Painted chamber tomb with scenes of banqueting, dancers, and musicians on walls.

• Function: Etruscan burial site; celebrated life and ensured a joyful afterlife.

• Context: Tarquinia, Italy; Etruscan, c. 480–470 BCE; reflects elite funerary customs.

• Patron: Wealthy Etruscan family.

Niobides Krater
Anonymous vase painter of Classical Greece known as the Niobid Painter

• Content: Red-figure calyx krater; one side shows Artemis and Apollo killing Niobe’s children, the other may show Herakles with warriors.

• Function: Mixing vessel for wine and water; used at banquets (symposia).

• Context: Classical Greece, c. 460–450 BCE; early example of depth and multiple ground lines.

• Patron: Unknown; used by wealthy Greeks.

Doryphoros Polykleitos

• Content: Marble Roman copy of bronze Greek original; idealized nude male athlete standing in contrapposto.

• Function: Demonstrated Polykleitos’s canon of ideal proportions; possibly set in a gymnasium.

• Context: Classical Greece, c. 450–440 BCE; focus on balance, harmony, and ideal human form.

• Patron: Unknown, but made for public or athletic space.

Acropolis Athens

• Content: Elevated complex of marble temples and buildings honoring Athena; includes sculptures like the Parthenon frieze and statues.

• Function: Religious, cultural, and political center of Athens; showcased Athenian power.

• Context: Athens, Greece; High Classical Period, c. 447–410 BCE; built after Persian Wars.

• Patron: Pericles, leader of Athens.

Grave stele of Hegeso Attributed to Kallimachos

• Content: Marble relief of seated woman (Hegeso) selecting jewelry from a box held by a servant girl.

• Function: Grave marker honoring a deceased Athenian woman; shows her status and domestic role.

• Context: Classical Greece, c. 410 BCE; reflects private life and role of elite women.

• Patron: Family of Hegeso.

Winged Victory of Samothrace

• Content: Marble statue of Nike (Victory) with wind-blown drapery; once stood on a ship prow base.

• Function: Commemorated naval victory; honored gods at a sanctuary.

• Context: Hellenistic Greece, c. 190 BCE; dynamic movement and dramatic effect.

• Patron: Possibly Rhodians after naval success.

Great Alter of Zeus and Athens at Pergamon

• Content: High-relief frieze showing battle between gods and giants (Gigantomachy); Athena and Zeus fight giants.

• Function: Altar to Zeus; celebrated divine and royal power.

• Context: Hellenistic, c. 175 BCE; from Pergamon (modern Turkey); reflects drama and emotion.

• Patron: King Eumenes II of Pergamon.

House of Vettii

• Content: Large Roman house with frescoes, atrium, and peristyle garden; includes mythological scenes and still lifes.

• Function: Private residence; displayed wealth and status of owners.

• Context: Pompeii, Imperial Rome, c. 62–79 CE; reflects Roman domestic life and art.

• Patron: The Vettii brothers, former slaves turned wealthy merchants.

Alexander Mosaic from the House of Faun, Pompeii

• Content: Floor mosaic showing Alexander the Great battling Darius III at the Battle of Issus; dramatic and detailed.

• Function: Decoration for a wealthy Roman home; celebrated heroic conquest.

• Context: Roman Republic, c. 100 BCE; copy of earlier Greek painting.

• Patron: Likely the owner of the House of the Faun, a wealthy Roman elite.

Seated boxer

• Content: Bronze statue of a muscular, bruised boxer seated with a weary expression and wrapped hands.

• Function: Possibly a votive offering; honors athlete and evokes pathos.

• Context: Hellenistic Greece, c. 100 BCE; shows realism and emotion.

• Patron: Unknown; likely a public or religious commission.

Head of a Roman patrician

• Content: Marble bust of an older man with exaggerated wrinkles and age features (verism).

• Function: Portrait to express wisdom, experience, and virtue; displayed in homes or funerary contexts.

• Context: Roman Republic, c. 75–50 BCE; valued realism and gravitas.

• Patron: Wealthy patrician family.

Augustus of Prima Porta

• Content: Marble statue of Augustus in idealized form, wearing armor and pointing forward; includes Cupid riding a dolphin at his feet.

• Function: Propaganda piece to show divine ancestry, military success, and leadership.

• Context: Imperial Rome, early 1st century CE; idealized portrait, posthumous or during rule.

• Patron: Possibly Livia, Augustus’s wife.

Colosseum (Flavin Amphitheater)

• Content: Large stone amphitheater with tiered seating, arches, and barrel vaults; held up to 50,000 spectators.

• Function: Hosted gladiator fights, games, and public spectacles.

• Context: Rome, Italy; Imperial Rome, 70–80 CE; showed Roman engineering and imperial generosity.

• Patron: Emperor Vespasian and his sons (Flavian dynasty).

Forum of Trajan

• Content: Large imperial complex with a basilica, libraries, column, and markets; decorated with reliefs of military victories.

• Function: Public space for political, commercial, and commemorative use.

• Context: Rome, Italy; 106–112 CE; celebrated victory over Dacians.

• Patron: Emperor Trajan, architect was Apollodorus of Damascus.

Panthenon

• Content: Temple with a massive dome, oculus, and Corinthian columns; inscription credits Agrippa.

• Function: Temple to all Roman gods; later converted into a church.

• Context: Rome, Italy; Imperial Rome, c. 118–125 CE; marvel of Roman engineering.

• Patron: Emperor Hadrian.

Ludovisi Battle Sarcophagus

• Content: Marble sarcophagus with chaotic high-relief battle scene between Romans and barbarians.

• Function: Burial container for a Roman elite; emphasized Roman victory and power.

• Context: Late Imperial Rome, c. 250 CE; reflects instability and shift in artistic style.

• Patron: Likely a Roman general or noble.

Catacomb of Priscilla

• Content: Underground Christian burial site with frescoes of biblical scenes (Good Shepherd, Orant figure).

• Function: Burial and place for Christian worship during persecution.

• Context: Rome, c. 200–400 CE; early Christian art in a hidden setting.

• Patron: Wealthy Christian woman, possibly Priscilla’s family.

Santa Sabina

• Content: Early Christian basilica with nave, side aisles, clerestory, and apse; wooden doors with biblical scenes.

• Function: Christian church used for worship and Eucharist.

• Context: Rome, c. 422–432 CE; reflects adaptation of Roman basilica form.

• Patron: Pope Celestine I.

Rebecca & Eliezer at the Wall (Vienna Genesis)

• Content: Eliezer meets Rebecca at the well; continuous narrative with classical columns and personification of water.

• Function: Religious manuscript illustration for devotion or instruction.

• Context: Byzantine Empire, early 6th century CE; luxury manuscript made on purple vellum.

• Patron: Likely commissioned by a member of the imperial court or aristocracy.

Jacob Wrestling the Angel (Vienna Genesis)

• Content: Scene depicting Jacob wrestling with an angel, demonstrating themes of struggle and divine encounter.

• Function: Religious manuscript illustration intended for devotion or teaching.

• Context: Byzantine Empire, early 6th century CE; part of a luxury manuscript made on purple vellum.

• Patron: Likely commissioned by elite members of the imperial court or aristocracy.

San Vitale

• Content: Octagonal church with elaborate mosaics of Christ, Justinian, and Theodora.

• Function: Christian church; asserted religious and political authority.

• Context: Ravenna, Italy, 526–547 CE; part of Justinian’s effort to restore Roman glory.

• Patron: Sponsored by Bishop Ecclesius; supported by Emperor Justinian.

Hagia Sophia

• Content: Large domed cathedral with intricate mosaics and an innovative architectural design, symbolizing the height of Byzantine architecture.

• Function: Originally a Christian basilica, later converted to a mosque, and now serves as a museum; represents the religious power of the Byzantine Empire.

• Context: Istanbul, Turkey, completed in 537 CE; a masterpiece of Byzantine engineering and artistry.

• Patron: Commissioned by Emperor Justinian I.

Merovingian Looped Fibulae

• Content: Ornate metal brooches with zoomorphic designs and inlaid stones.

• Function: Used to fasten garments; symbol of status and identity.

• Context: Frankish kingdom, c. 6th century CE; early medieval Europe.

• Patron: Elite individuals of Merovingian society.

Virgin and Child between Saints Theodore and George

• Content: Icon showing Mary and Christ flanked by warrior saints and angels above.

• Function: Devotional icon; aided prayer and veneration.

• Context: Mount Sinai, Egypt, c. 6th–7th century CE; early Byzantine monastic art.

• Patron: Likely created for monastic or private worship.

Lindisfarne Gospels: Cross-Carpet Page (St. Matthew)

• Content: Intricate illuminated manuscript page with a vibrant cross design and interlacing patterns.

• Function: Served as a decorative introduction to the Gospel of Matthew, enhancing spiritual reading and reflection.

• Context: Produced at the Lindisfarne Monastery, England, early 8th century CE; an example of Insular art.

• Patron: Likely commissioned by Bishop Eadfrith.

Lindisfarne Gospels: St. Luke Portrait Page

• Content: Illuminated manuscript page depicting St. Luke with symbols of the evangelist and intricate decorative borders.

• Function: Provides visual reverence and context to the Gospel of Luke, enhancing the liturgical reading experience.

• Context: Created at the Lindisfarne Monastery, England, early 8th century CE; characteristic of Insular art.

• Patron: Likely commissioned by Bishop Eadfrith.

Lindisfarne Gospels: St. Luke Incipit Page

• Content: Initial letter of the Gospel of Luke embellished with vibrant colors and intricate designs.

• Function: Marks the beginning of the Gospel, inviting contemplation and reverence.

• Context: Created at the Lindisfarne Monastery, England, early 8th century CE; a prime example of Insular art.

• Patron: Likely commissioned by Bishop Eadfrith.

Great Mosque of Cordoba

• Content: Hypostyle hall, horseshoe arches, ornate mihrab, courtyard for worship.

• Function: Place of Islamic prayer and community gathering.

• Context: Córdoba, Spain, begun 785 CE; Umayyad rule in al-Andalus.

• Patron: Commissioned by Abd al-Rahman I and expanded by successors.

Pyxis of al-Mughira

• Content: A cylindrical ivory container decorated with intricate relief carvings depicting court life and nature.

• Function: Likely served as a container for cosmetics or precious items, highlighting luxury and status.

• Context: Created in Al-Andalus, Spain, circa 965 CE; reflects Islamic art and culture.

• Patron: Commissioned for a member of the Umayyad dynasty.

Church of Sainte-Foy

• Content: Romanesque pilgrimage church with barrel vaults, a cruciform plan, and a reliquary of Saint Foy.

• Function: Pilgrimage site; held relics and inspired devotion.

• Context: Conques, France, c. 1050–1130 CE; part of the pilgrimage route to Santiago de Compostela.

• Patron: Local monastery and church community; supported by pilgrims and donations.

Bayeux Tapestry

• Content: Embroidered narrative showing the Norman conquest of England in 1066.

• Function: Commemorates the victory of William the Conqueror; historical propaganda.

• Context: Romanesque, c. 1066–1080 CE; likely made in England for Norman patrons.

• Patron: Possibly commissioned by Bishop Odo, half-brother of William.

Chartres Cathedral

• Content: Gothic cathedral with pointed arches, flying buttresses, stained glass (notably the rose window), and sculpted portals.

• Function: Christian worship, pilgrimage site, housed relic of the Virgin Mary’s tunic.

• Context: Chartres, France, rebuilt c. 1194–1220 after a fire; High Gothic architecture.

• Patron: Church authorities; supported by local nobles and community donations.

Dedication Page with Blanche of Castile and King Louis IX of France (from a moralized bible)

• Content: Queen Blanche instructing her son Louis; a cleric and scribe below. Accompanied by scenes with biblical lessons.

• Function: Educational moralized Bible for the young king.

• Context: Paris, France, c. 1225 CE; Gothic illuminated manuscript.

• Patron: Queen Blanche of Castile for her son, King Louis IX.

Scenes from the Apocalypse (from Bible moralisees)

• Content: Paired biblical and moral scenes with vivid illustrations and Gothic script.

• Function: Taught moral lessons through biblical events.

• Context: France, c. 1226–1234 CE; Gothic period; made for royal audience.

• Patron: Commissioned for French royalty, possibly Louis IX.

Rottgen Pieta

• Content: Sculpture of Mary holding the dead, emaciated body of Christ; highly emotional and gruesome.

• Function: Aids in personal devotion and emotional connection to Christ’s suffering.

• Context: Germany, c. 1300–1325 CE; Gothic style with emphasis on human emotion.

• Patron: Possibly a church or individual for private devotion.

Arena (Scrovegni) Chapel, including Lamentation

• Content: Frescoes by Giotto showing scenes from the life of Christ; Lamentation shows mourning of Christ’s body.

• Function: Private chapel for family and atonement for usury; taught Christian lessons.

• Context: Padua, Italy, c. 1303–1305 CE; Early Renaissance style.

• Patron: Enrico Scrovegni, a wealthy banker, seeking redemption.

Golden Haggadah (The Plagues of Egypt, Scenes of Liberation, & Preparation for Passover)

• Content: Lavish illustrations of Jewish Exodus story—plagues, escape from Egypt, Passover preparations.

• Function: Used at Passover to tell the story of the Exodus; educational and ceremonial.

• Context: Spain, c. 1320 CE; Jewish manuscript made during the Gothic period.

• Patron: Wealthy Jewish family, possibly for a wedding or celebration.

Alhambra

• Content: Islamic palace complex with courtyards, intricate stucco work, muqarnas, and gardens.

• Function: Royal palace and fortress for the Nasrid dynasty.

• Context: Granada, Spain, built 1354–1391 CE; reflects Islamic luxury and architectural refinement.

• Patron: Nasrid rulers, particularly Muhammad V.

Annunciation Triptych (Merode Altarpiece)

Content: Central scene shows the Angel Gabriel telling Mary she will bear Christ; side panels show the donors and Joseph working.
Function: Private devotional triptych for prayer.
Context: Northern Renaissance, c. 1427–1432; rich symbolism (lilies, mousetrap, candle), everyday setting.
Patron: A wealthy Flemish merchant (shown in left panel).

Pazzi Chapel

Content: Harmonious, symmetrical space with dome and roundels; includes Pazzi coat of arms.
Function: Chapter house for monks and family burial chapel.
Context: Florence, c. 1429–1461; Early Renaissance ideals inspired by Roman buildings like the Pantheon.
Patron: Pazzi family.

The Arnolfini Portrait

Content: Portrait of a couple in a richly decorated interior; full of symbols (dog, candle, mirror, fruit).
Function: Likely a record of a marriage or betrothal; also displayed wealth.
Context: Northern Renaissance, 1434; detailed oil painting, careful realism, layered symbolism.
Patron: Giovanni Arnolfini, a wealthy Italian merchant in Bruges.

David (Donatello)

Content: Young David stands over Goliath’s head, wearing only boots and a hat; bronze nude.
Function: Symbol of Florence’s victory and independence.
Context: Early Renaissance, c. 1440–1460; revival of classical nude sculpture and contrapposto.
Patron: Medici family, likely for their private courtyard.

Palazzo Rucellai

Content: Façade with three levels and classical pilasters; decorative not structural.
Function: Townhouse that showed off family wealth and taste.
Context: Florence, c. 1450; inspired by ancient Rome (like the Colosseum); Early Renaissance architecture.
Patron: Giovanni Rucellai.

Madonna and Child with Two Angels

Content: Mary and Jesus appear tender and lifelike; angels are playful and expressive.
Function: Devotional image for private use.
Context: c. 1465; Early Italian Renaissance, focus on beauty, emotion, and human warmth.
Patron: Possibly a Medici or another elite Florentine.

Birth of Venus

Content: Venus emerges from the sea on a shell; wind gods and a goddess greet her.
Function: Decorative mythological painting celebrating beauty and love.
Context: Florence, c. 1484–1486; Renaissance interest in classical mythology and Neoplatonism.
Patron: Likely Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco de’ Medici.

Last Supper

Content: Jesus announces his betrayal; apostles react with emotion and drama.
Function: Painted for a monastery dining hall to inspire reflection.
Context: Milan, c. 1494–1498; High Renaissance focus on perspective, balance, and human feeling.
Patron: Ludovico Sforza, Duke of Milan.

Adam and Eve

Content: Idealized nude figures in Eden; animals and tree full of symbolic meaning.
Function: Engraving meant to explore human proportion and sell widely.
Context: Germany, 1504; Northern Renaissance with classical influence and interest in anatomy.
Patron: No known specific patron; made for wide distribution.

Sistine Chapel Ceiling and Altar Wall Frescoes

Content: Ceiling: 9 scenes from Genesis, including Creation of Adam. Altar wall: Last Judgment.
Function: Decoration for the pope’s private chapel; meant to teach and inspire.
Context: Vatican, 1508–1512 (ceiling), 1536–1541 (altar wall); High Renaissance to Mannerist transition.
Patron: Pope Julius II (ceiling), Pope Paul III (altar wall).

School of Athens

Content: Ancient philosophers like Plato and Aristotle in a grand architectural space.
Function: Celebrates philosophy and knowledge; decoration for papal library.
Context: High Renaissance, 1509–1511; blends classical ideas with Renaissance ideals.
Patron: Pope Julius II.

Isenheim Altarpiece

Content: A complex altarpiece featuring Christ's crucifixion, resurrection, and scenes of the Madonna and child.

Function: Designed for a hospital chapel, it aimed to provide comfort to the sick and suffering.

Context: Germany, 1512–1516; Northern Renaissance, influenced by religious themes and emotional expression.

Patron: Commissioned by the Antonite monks.

Entombment of Christ

Content: Christ’s body is lowered; bright colors and swirling figures show deep emotion.
Function: Religious altarpiece meant to inspire devotion.
Context: Mannerism, 1525–1528; emotional, stylized, and spatially ambiguous.
Patron: Capponi family, Florence.

Allegory of Law and Grace

Content: Contrast between Old Testament law and New Testament grace.
Function: Protestant teaching tool promoting Lutheran ideas.
Context: Reformation, c. 1530; woodcut made for wide distribution.
Patron: Supporters of Martin Luther.

Venus of Urbino

Content: Reclining nude woman (Venus), symbol of love and fertility.
Function: Celebrates beauty and possibly served as a marriage gift.
Context: Venetian Renaissance, 1538; rich use of color and sensuality.
Patron: Likely Guidobaldo II della Rovere.

Frontispiece of the Codex Mendoza

Content: Founding of Tenochtitlan, Aztec leaders, and military conquest.
Function: Document Aztec history, tribute, and culture for Spanish rulers.
Context: New Spain, c. 1541–1542; created shortly after Spanish conquest.
Patron: Viceroy of New Spain, sent to Spanish king.

Il Gesù & Triumph of the Name of Jesus

Content: Baroque ceiling fresco showing souls rising to heaven; church with large nave and dramatic altar.
Function: Main Jesuit church; meant to inspire awe and devotion.
Context: Rome, 16th–17th century; Counter-Reformation art and architecture.
Patron: Jesuit order and Cardinal Farnese.

Hunters in the Snow

Content: Winter scene with hunters, villagers, and icy landscape.
Function: Part of a seasonal cycle, showing daily life.
Context: Northern Renaissance, 1565; detailed, panoramic landscape.
Patron: Likely a wealthy merchant, part of a calendar series.

Mosque of Selim II

Content: Grand central dome, minarets, and decorated interior.
Function: Friday mosque for worship and imperial statement.
Context: Ottoman Empire, 1568–1575; Sinan’s architectural masterpiece.
Patron: Sultan Selim II.

Calling of Saint Matthew

Content: Jesus calls Matthew in a dark, dramatic setting; strong use of light.
Function: Religious painting to inspire faith.
Context: Baroque, c. 1597–1601; Caravaggio’s naturalism and tenebrism.
Patron: Contarelli Chapel, Rome.

Henri IV Receives the Portrait of Marie de’ Medici

Content: Allegorical scene of Henri IV admiring Marie’s portrait, with gods watching.
Function: Glorify Marie’s role as queen and peacemaker.
Context: Baroque, 1621–1625; from a cycle idealizing her life.
Patron: Marie de’ Medici.

Self-Portrait with Saskia

Content: Rembrandt with his wife Saskia, shown in a casual, intimate scene.
Function: Personal image exploring identity and relationships.
Context: Dutch Baroque, 1636; etching shows artistic experimentation.
Patron: Self-made work, for private or collector market.

San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane

Content: A small church with an oval dome and undulating walls, full of curves and complex geometry.
Function: Catholic church, designed to impress and reflect the glory of God.
Context: Italian Baroque, 1638–1646; dramatic and innovative use of space.
Patron: Discalced Trinitarians (a religious order).

Ecstasy of Saint Teresa

Content: Saint Teresa is shown in spiritual ecstasy as an angel pierces her heart with a golden arrow.
Function: Inspire intense emotional and spiritual connection during prayer.
Context: Baroque sculpture, 1647–1652; part of Counter-Reformation effort to appeal to the senses.
Patron: Cardinal Cornaro (for his family chapel).

Angel with Arquebus, Asiel Timor Dei

Content: Angel holding a gun (arquebus), dressed in rich, elaborate clothing blending European and Indigenous elements.
Function: Reinforce Catholic power and divine protection in colonial Latin America.
Context: 17th-century Viceregal art in the Americas; fusion of religion, military, and native style.
Patron: Likely church or wealthy colonial elites.

Las Meninas

Content: A moment in the Spanish court; the Infanta is surrounded by attendants, with the artist painting in the scene.
Function: Portrait of royal family and reflection on art itself.
Context: Spanish Baroque, 1656; complex composition with realism and illusion.
Patron: King Philip IV of Spain.

Woman Holding a Balance

Content: A quiet scene where a woman weighs something, with a Last Judgment painting in the background.
Function: Moral message about balancing material and spiritual life.
Context: Dutch Baroque, c. 1664; typical Vermeer: calm, light-filled domestic setting.
Patron: Likely a private patron; art for a middle-class home.

The Palace of Versailles

Content: Lavish royal palace with ornate gardens, Hall of Mirrors, and grand architecture.
Function: Royal residence and symbol of absolute power and divine kingship.
Context: French Baroque, begun in 1669; centralized power under Louis XIV.
Patron: King Louis XIV of France.

Screen with the Siege of Belgrade and Hunting Scene

Content: Bi-fold screen showing a battle on one side and an elegant hunting scene on the other.
Function: Decorative folding screen; used in elite homes.
Context: Spanish colonial Mexico, c. 1697–1701; shows global influence (Asian folding screens + European scenes).
Patron: Probably made for a wealthy colonial official.

The Virgin of Guadalupe

Content: Image of the Virgin Mary as she appeared to Juan Diego, surrounded by symbolic elements.
Function: Promote devotion to the Virgin and legitimize Catholicism in New Spain.
Context: Colonial Mexico, 1698; blending of Indigenous and Catholic traditions.
Patron: Devotional image for public and private use, supported by church authorities.

Fruit and Insects

Content: Still life with detailed fruits, vegetables, flowers, and insects.
Function: Celebrate nature, beauty, and scientific interest in classification.
Context: Dutch Baroque, 1711; part of a growing fascination with natural science and still-life painting.
Patron: Likely made for a wealthy collector or scientist.