DUCHESS OF MALFI - KEY EVENTS, CONTEXT, CRITICS, SYMBOLS + THEMES

Classical Tragedy

A revenge tragedy performed in the “Theatre of Blood”. Takes place in a male-dominated society where a female authority figure is still restricted by her brothers and shunned by society. The imitation of a single action, in which a hero of high status falls from fortune to misfortune. The fall must occur because of a “tragic flaw,” or some error or shortcoming in an otherwise good protagonist, and not by vice or depravity. The purpose of tragedy, in Aristotle’s view, is to provoke pity and terror in the audience, leading to a catharsis.

Unity of Time

The concept where a typical tragedy takes place over the span of 24 hours or a few days but the Duchess of Malfi subverts this with a minimum 9 month gap between A1 and A2 because of children, then the chaotic and frantic quickening pace as the play progresses, reaching a tragic climax of disorder when the Duchess dies.

Hubris

Too much pride

Hamartia

tragic flaw of main protagonist, causes serious error in judgement, turning point in play

Catharsis

Audience releasing strong, repressed emotions providing a sense of relief.

Anagnorisis

Hero/heroine begins to learn his/her mistakes but it is a case of too little too late

Pathos

Evokes strong emotions like pity and sympathy 

Peripeteia

Reversal of Fortune (usually from good to bad)

Politics and Corruption

The Duchess of Malfi takes place in Roman Catholic Italy, which English Renaissance audiences would have associated with the stereotype of “sophisticated corruption.” Duke as a spider and the law as his web: he uses the laws of the country as a means of security for himself and as a weapon against his enemies. It is through spies that the two find out about the Duchess’ age and children, and through continual abuse of power that they break her family apart and ultimately slaughter them.

Ultimately the play ends with the slaughter of nearly everyone involved in their web of influence. This ending suggests that corruption yields disastrous results; even beyond death, corruption can lead to damnation. Political corruption and duplicitous behaviour has the potential to lead to dire personal and religious consequences, and possibly to the collapse of government itself.

Represented by the Cardinal, Ferdinand and Bosola. The brothers seek to destroy the Duchess and order her to not remarry for personal benefit and inheritance of her fortune and power. Human greed is further emphasised by Bosola’s foolish trust in bribery and makes the same mistake again for money and status.

Love and Male Authority

Traditional society in which women are subjected to the wills of men. The Cardinal’s illicit relationship with Julia provides an example of a woman successfully controlled by a man. Julia is depicted according to the stereotype of a fickle woman, while the Cardinal is the constant figure of authority.

The Duchess, however, inverts the pattern of male authority over love. Refusing to remain a widow, she covertly goes against her brothers’ order and marries for love out of the normal confines of courtship.

Throughout the play, the Duchess continues to defy male authority and assert her own agency, for love, for the sake of her children, and for her own self interest. Even facing her own execution, she remains proud and unafraid, and she undercuts the power of the men executing her by ensuring that her body will be cared for by women after her death. Even so, the Duchess’s final, dying thought is that her husband is still alive. This gestures towards the fact that male authority is still powerful, despite the Duchess’s assertions of her own power, for which she is being executed. The Duchess, then, can be seen both as a proud example of a woman exerting her will and a tragic example of society’s refusal to relinquish the power of male authority.

Expectations of Patriarchy and Women

Women were stereotyped as fickle and easily swayed, juxtaposed by the Duchess’ agency and mental fortitude as she subverts gender norms and social expectations. Upon her dying wishes, she wants to be surrounded by women during her burial, illustrating a sense of proto-feminism.

Guilt, Death, disease and Suffering (Mental + Physical)

Death is shown as an escape that is preferable to a life of suffering. Death, no matter how gruesome, leads to “excellent company in the other world,” and it frees the Duchess from the control and torture of her brothers. We can also note that the Duchess’ death showcases the play’s exploration of the permanence of death, as an echo rises from her grave in an attempt to tell Antonio of her tragic fate.

Ferdinand is diagnosed with lycanthropy — Guilt, therefore, has the power to drive someone insane (and ultimately to his death).

Bosola’s complexity - forced into killing and experiences guilt throughout the play. In all of his actions, he feels guilty, but this guilt is overwhelmed by a sense of duty to the Duke, emphasizing the play’s suggestion that guilt or preemptive guilt is not enough to deter murder or bad behavior. Ultimately, though, guilt and desire for revenge take precedence over duty.

Religion and Sin

The brothers are greedy for her fortune and prideful of their noble blood, so the Cardinal and Duke do not wish the Duchess to remarry. Ferdinand also exhibits a strange incestuous desire for his sister (another glaring sin), which leads in part to his horrible treatment of her. Ferdinand’s rage, lust, pride, and greed all upset him to the point of deformity, and he shocks the Cardinal with the horrible things he talks about doing to punish the Duchess.

“Whether we fall by ambition, blood, or lust, / Like diamonds we are cut with our own dust.” These lines indicate that our own sins and our own actions are responsible for our downfalls.

Religion in this play, then, is generally acknowledged but ignored by its characters. Commonly used by the powerful to seize or maintain power, and by the wicked to justify themselves and hide their terrible sins.

Class

Duchess marrying Antonio is remarkable because she was the pursuer and because she married against her brothers’ will. It is also remarkable because she married someone of a lower class.

Class is shown, on the one hand, to be binding and restricting (as it is one of the reasons the marriage is so scandalous and ends so tragically), but Webster’s play also suggests that class is fluid, that figures can rise and fall in status, and that true worth and merit should be given a greater value than birth, wealth, and social status.

Blood (Theatre of Blood) 

The word “blood” was used to depict the violence and tragic bloodshed of characters in a corrupt society, used to criticise Italian Catholicism.

Plays were both dramas and comedies and reflected the social and political unrest of the day as well as belief in witchcraft and ghosts.

Fate, fortune and inevitable downfall of protagonist

Relates to classical tragedy and the belief of pre-ordained fate and destiny - our lives being predicted and decided before we were born while our star signs (astrology) also had an impact. In traditional tragedies, protagonists would eventually meet their tragic, doomed fate and are tied to death even from the start (peripeteia).

However, the Duchess transcends the physical realm with her echo and dies an act early, subverting Jacobean tragic conventions as protagonists typically died during the last act.

Candles (Light VS Darkness)

The Duchess symbolises the play’s virtue and gravitational light as she spreads morality by encouraging characters to change for the better. Most of the sinful, devious acts are committed in the dark - nocturnal like a wolf. However, her inner light is destroyed by Ferdinand’s incestuous greed, shrouding the play in darkness.

Duchess’ wedding ring

A symbol of the Duchess and Antonio’s eternal and powerful love that transcends beyond the physical realm into the metaphysical realm. Breaking boundaries as a member of the Italian aristocracy is marrying a lowly steward who lacks ambition, wealth and power, thus showing their influence. The removal of the wedding rings signifies the physical separation of the family and the destruction of love.

Cardinal’s military armour

During the Duchess and her family’s banishment, the Cardinal symbolically adorns military armour to represent bloodlust and his violent intentions to destroy the Duchess by making her suffer emotionally in order to break her. His transition from the religious costume suggests how he uses religion as a facade to conceal his orchestration in the Duchess’ death and to excuse his numerous sins. Foreshadows the chaos, death and disease in A4 and A5.

Poisoned bible

A symbol of religious corruption and hypocrisy as the Cardinal selfishly acts only for personal gain. He reveals the horrible truth to Julia only because he already decided he was going to kill her. Therefore, despite being a powerful and highly influential Catholic, religious figure, he does not embody any Christian purity or virtue and also does not confess his sins until his death. He and Ferdinand have both “poisoned” the Italian court with vice and moral decay.

The Four Humours: blood, yellow bile, black bile, and phlegm

If the humours were in balance, then the body was in health. If the humours were in imbalance, then the person was sick. The humours affect your whole being, from your health and feelings to your looks and actions. Connected to different organs inside the body; to the four elements of earth, water, fire and air; and even to the movements of the stars in the sky.

Blood - sanguine temperament

Yellow Bile - choleric

Black Bile - melancholic

Phlegm - phlegmatic

“The Duchess of Malfi is a nightmare, not a tragedy.”

George Henry Lewes, 1850

“Domination and destruction of the Duchess

…

offers a parable for the ecological concerns that confronted the artisans of Jacobean London.”

Bonnie Lander Johnson & Bethany Dubow, 2017

“Characters in Webster’s play appear to be human on the surface, but

…

prove to be more animal than man”

Penelope Meyers Ushers, 2017

“(The Duchess) is a champion of desire”

Linda Woodbridge, 2002

“Antithesis between the silent Duchess and chattering madmen”

Belsey

“A female christ”

Celia Daileades

“Antonio has a naive goodness that cannot survive in an inherently evil world.”

Leslie Thomson

Bosola - “one of the most complex and most human villains in drama”

William Archer, 1893

“When Ferdinand looks down into his dead sister’s dazzling eyes, he sees himself, faces his own death too”

Frank Whigham, 1985

“Female protagonists who offend the social order, rather than imitating the downfall of mankind, simply serve to highlight the limits of moral and social codes.”

Dympna Callaghan, 1989

Duchess - “She is inescapably a victim of others’ evil and of social attitudes, rather than one undermined by inner weakness or overweening ambition”

R.S. White, 1987

Duchess - “both marries and attempts to remain independent from the dominant culture”

Rose, 1988

Ferdinand - “more horrible and unnatural” passion

Brennan, 1963

“Ferdinand’s lycanthropia was undoubtedly intended by Webster as a final confirmation of his characterisation as a jealous lover.”

Brennan, 1963

“The radiant spirit of the Duchess cannot be killed”

P.B. Murray

“The two brothers are not driven by any sense of possessive outrage, however warped, but by a delight in malice itself, a “motiveless malignity” even against their own flesh and blood.”

Christopher Hart

“The Cardinal’s cool, unemotional detachment is more terrifying than Ferdinand’s impassioned raving.”

Lee Bliss

A1 S1 SUMMARY

1. Antonio compares corrupt Italian court with fair and just French court. Seven sins and Bosola criticised by Antonio.

2. Introduction of Bosola: Bosola, a cynical and morally ambiguous character who is the play’s malcontent and intelligencer is introduced. He is hired by Ferdinand and the Cardinal to spy on the Duchess and report back to them on her activities.

3. Conflict with Delio: Delio, a friend of Antonio, confronts Bosola about his role in spying on the Duchess. Delio expresses his disdain for Bosola's willingness to serve the corrupt interests of Ferdinand and the Cardinal.

4. Bosola is angry at the Cardinal for being deceived and going to the galleys.

5. Delio and Antonio condemn Bosola getting manipulated again - foreshadowing “black malcontents”

6. Tragedy’s exposition

A1 S2 SUMMARY

1. Ferdinand treats Antonio with respect for appreciating him with the offering of a “jewel”. However, this “great master of her household” will soon be threatened and sought after by the brothers from bloodlust after the Duchess disobeys their orders.

2. Establishing class stratification - Ferdinand asserts his upper class and wealth by being surrounded by 4 courtiers and Antonio, as a lowly steward. Sycophantic lords.

3. The brothers’ are heavily criticised by Delio and Antonio because of their facade and surrounding themselves with sycophantic courtiers juxtaposing with the Duchess’ positive description.

4. The brothers’ torment and harass the Duchess with threats of remarrying, causing the Duchess to lie to avoid their wrath.

5. Bosola's Observations: Bosola is ordered by Ferdinand to observe the Duchess's behavior and interactions, noting her seemingly innocent and virtuous nature. However, he remains skeptical and distrustful of her intentions and even asks whether he must kill or act with violence, suggesting how being an agent of darkness has been normalised or expected from him.

6. Ferdinand bribes Bosola with the position of provisorship of the horse, a fatal mistake in trusting the brothers.

7. Antonio’s praise and admiration of the Duchess - he incessantly confesses his love for her in sonnet form. They have a clandestine marriage (with Cariola as the only witness) which will ultimately end in tragedy, although their love is bound eternally. Subverting tradition by not marrying in a church, a sign of defiance.

8. Clandestine Marriage - Unorthodox and unreligious, with Cariola as the only witness. Cariola expresses her concern and fear - peripeteia later on.

9. Tragedy’s exposition

A2 S1 SUMMARY

1. Unity of Time - 9 months has passed between Act 1 and 2, more realistic but also challenging tragic conventions which normally takes place over a few days. The Duchess is heavily pregnant with her first child. This is essential as the pace quickens frantically as the play progresses.

2. Bosola criticises and mocks Castruccio (Julia’s husband) out of jealousy and bitterness at his higher status and rank so he manifests denigrating rumors to hurt Castruccio who is concerned about how others view him.

3. Bosola’s extremely rude and dehumanising rant to the Old Lady - Bosola castigates her for her unattractive appearance, which she has attempted to conceal through an excessive use of cosmetics. His insulting treatment of the woman (misogyny) leads him to philosophize morosely on the theme of physical corruption of the body and the inevitability of death. He also notices the morning sickness and swelling of the Duchess which he suspects is due to pregnancy. Warning of how the truth is eventually revealed and that secrets do not last forever.

4. Bosola gives the Duchess apricots - these fruits were common to bring pregnant women into labour. He critically assesses her sick reaction and claims his suspicions are true to the audience with aside speeches. Alarmed, Delio advises Antonio to spread the rumor that Bosola has poisoned the Duchess to conceal the truth, causing panic and fear which adds to the foreboding.

5. Establishes Bosola as one of the main antagonists who beget tragedy on the Duchess, emphasising his shift in allegiance later on.

A2 S2 SUMMARY

1. Bosola and the Old Lady have another interaction - Old lady accuses him of being abusive which he then responds by insulting and undermining her lack of education, but this immorality sets up his shift in character later on.

2. Antonio’s subterfuge to prevent the truth from being exposed of the Duchess giving birth - A state of emergency has broken out, with a deceitful lie being spread of an armed stranger (from Switzerland) breaking into the Duchess's bedroom and various thefts of valuables (exaggerated) from the palace. Antonio issues orders for security by demanding the gates being closed and for everyone to stay in their rooms.

3. Fearful of safety - He is deeply worried about the pain and suffering of the Duchess, painting him as a loving and caring husband. Antonio dispatches Delio to Rome, telling him his [Antonio's] "life lies in your service." Bidding him farewell, Delio affirms his friendship for and loyalty to Antonio, saying, "Old friends, like old swords, still are trusted best."

4. Antonio stubbornly listens to Delio’s poor advice about ignoring superstitions which leads to a fatal mistake with the horoscope being discovered by Bosola as Antonio wants to know the baby’s nativity. Overconfidence and stubborn nature causes him to disregard bad omens.

5. Cariola enters to announce to Antonio he is now the father of a son.

A2 S3 SUMMARY

1. Bosola’s discovery of the horoscope - Antonio drops it while taking a handkerchief to wipe his bloody nose, immersing his initial in blood, another bad superstitious omen. Bosola prioritises his role as an intelligencer over his morality by illustrating his obsession over spying on the Duchess, building the tragic arc as both Bosola and Antonio have a conflict (stichomythic dialogue) in darkness, foreshadowing accidental death in A5. Many asides, both characters reveal their mutual distrust and suspicions of each other. IMPORTANT SYMBOL - BLOODY HANDKERCHIEF COVERING ANTONIO’S INITIALS.

2. Death and disease imagery - Bosola dominates the dialogue in the end and expresses his joy in the downfall of others, adding to the pathos and scandalous nature of the tragedy. He will send a letter to the brothers via Castruccio, who leaves the next day for Rome, which is a pivotal scene that starts the peripeteia.

A2 S4 SUMMARY

1. Cardinal and Julia’s affair - Julia sits on his lap. Religious corruption and moral hypocrisy is rife by contradicting Catholicism with adultery. The scene is set in the Cardinal’s lodgings, Rome. The Cardinal banters with Julia, Castruccio's wife, who has become the Cardinal's mistress. He stresses heavily that Julia is in his sexual debt and controls her with domineering attitude. He also comments sarcastically about women's lack of constancy and fidelity, even as he congratulates Julia on her "witty false" stratagem to deceive her husband and travel to Rome. He condemns her emotional nature (crying) as weak and vulnerable, painting him as a static, ruthless and heartless character.

2. Julia established as a foil character to the Duchess - uncommitted, cheats on her husband, lustful and unfaithful.

3. Delio, who courted Julia in the past, enters, commenting on Castruccio and offering Julia some money for prostitution, corruption of male figures by using women for sexual gratification and pleasure.

4. After Julia exits, Delio says he fears Antonio has been betrayed to the Duchess's brothers, inevitable tragic fate emphasised by ending rhyming couplet. Predicted outcome.

A2 S5 SUMMARY

1. Cardinal and Ferdinand discover the Duchess’ betrayal of their orders to not remarry - Important stage direction, accompanied by Ferdinand, the Cardinal enters his residence in Rome. They have read Bosola's letter revealing the birth of Antonio and the Duchess's child. Whereas the Cardinal maintains an icy composure, Ferdinand yields to passionate rage, vowing violent and cruel revenge on their sister, foreshadowing his lycanthropy and bestiality. The Cardinal declares his dismay that the royal bloodlines of their noble family have been disgraced. Ferdinand throws a childish tantrum & repeatedly envisions the Duchess's sexual laxity and vividly describes the ways in which he would punish her and her lover. The Cardinal urges Ferdinand to steer clear of "intemperate anger," but Ferdinand ignores his advice out of impulsiveness.

A3 S1 SUMMARY

1. Comically juxtaposes the previous scene full of bloodlust and wrathful vengeance from Ferdinand with a positive, light-hearted atmosphere between Antonio & Delio.

2. Unity of Time shifts again - Another 9 months has passed at least, Duchess has had 2 more children (twins).

3. Antonio expresses his worry about the Duchess’ reputation being tainted with lechery and is viewed as a “strumpet”. However, her disingenuous nature is justified out of protection for her family.

4. Ferdinand tells the Duchess he has found a husband for her, a nobleman named Count Malateste, but the Duchess calls Malateste transparent, "a mere stick of sugar-candy." Ferdinand vigorously asserts he will uphold the Duchess's honor and good name, although immediately after she departs, he mutters that her "guilt" is plain.

5. Ferdinand and Bosola confirm their suspicions about the Duchess’ disobedience and undermines her by stating her children has illegitimate “bastards”.

6. Ferdinand has a shift in personality and reveals his true vitriolic intentions by acting misogynistic. Ferdinand asserts the Duchess's behavior is caused by "rank blood," or corruption. Ferdinand now takes charge of the investigation. He will use a skeleton sky, which he got from Bosola, to enter the Duchess's bedchamber and force a confession from her that evening.

A3 S2 SUMMARY

1. Conversational and happy tone between such love and affection between Duchess and Antonio - another juxtaposition with hateful promise of Ferdinand in the previous scene. The Duchess and Antonio playfully discuss whether he will spend the night with her, sexual inuendo. After the lovers exchange kisses, Cariola asks Antonio about her love life, and Antonio answers her with an elegant allusion to ancient Greek mythology and human traits. After some more jesting, Antonio draws Cariola aside, and they leave the Duchess to herself.

2. Ferdinand’s entry with a poniard -

   While the Duchess muses on signs of age in her appearance and on the threat to Antonio from her brothers, Ferdinand enters, brandishing a dagger. Threatens to kill and harm her, foreshadowing how he later torments and destroys her inner light. Antonio, carrying a pistol, and Cariola reenter, having witnessed the heated exchange between the Duchess and Ferdinand. But knocking suddenly interrupts the dialogue. When Cariola reports the visitor is Bosola, the Duchess orders Antonio to flee, and he exits. Bosola tells the Duchess that Ferdinand has ridden in haste to Rome. The Duchess fabricates a story to explain her distress: Antonio, she says, has cheated in his accounts, and certain sums of money are missing or in default. The Duchess asks Bosola to summon the palace officers.

3. The Duchess bids him urgently to flee to Ancona, where he should await her arrival, together with her precious possessions. When Bosola returns, the Duchess and Antonio play-act a scene in which she reproaches him for embezzlement, confiscates his property, and banishes him from Malfi.

4. Manipulation and deceit VS truth and naivety - The Duchess’ Hamartia of being overtly trusting costs her at the worst instances. Bosola praises Antonio as virtuous, causing the Duchess to impulsively declare Antonio is her husband and father of her three children. She further avows Antonio is leaving for Ancona, where she means to follow him.

5. Sacrilegious act of feigning a pilgrimage - Bosola, who now possesses all the information he has been striving to obtain. Despite an objection from Cariola, the Duchess agrees, entrusting all her money and jewelry to Bosola.

6. Alone on stage at the end of the scene (soliloquy), Bosola muses on his own debasement as a spy. He reveals his moral awareness but shifts the blame to Ferdinand who is orchestrating his actions and justifies his actions with deceit.

A3 S3 SUMMARY

1. Bosola exposes Duchess and Antonio’s of their plans to flee to Ancona to the brothers - Another fatal error in judgement building the tragic momentum of the play. Bosola enters and takes the Cardinal and Ferdinand aside to report to them about the Duchess and Antonio.

2. Vengeful as ever, Ferdinand denounces his sister, and the Cardinal declares he will use his influence to ensure the state of Ancona will banish the Duchess and Antonio. Abuse of power and corruption out of desperate urge to ruin her life for their own self-gain.

A3 S4 SUMMARY

1. Banishment from Ancona - The scene takes place at the shrine of Our Lady of Loreto. Two pilgrims watch as a dumb show—or pantomime—portrays the Cardinal's resignation as a religious figure (facade and excuse for his sins) and installation as a military commander, complete with sword, helmet, shield, and spurs. The pantomime also portrays, through mime and gesture, the banishment of Antonio and the Duchess of Malfi from Ancona. Disclosing that the Pope, at the Cardinal's instigation, has stripped the Duchess of her dominion at Malfi, the pilgrims sadly reflect on the couple's ill fortune and see the Duchess’ kind nature whilst condemning the brothers.

2. Ruined marriage and destroyed love - Foreshadowing how family is forced to separate later on.

A3 S5 SUMMARY

1. Melancholic conversation - the Duchess of Malfi and Antonio discuss their situation, having been banished from Ancona. Bosola arrives bearing a letter from Ferdinand. The wording of the letter clearly suggests Ferdinand wants Antonio dead. The Duchess advises Antonio to escape to Milan along with their eldest child and sees through the deceit and lies, although the damage has already been done. The couple bid each other an anguished farewell.

1. Consequences of the Duchess’ inevitable tragic fate - After Antonio's departure, Bosola reenters, accompanied by an armed guard. On the orders of her brothers, Bosola places the Duchess under arrest and tells her she must see her husband no more.

2. Stoic defiance and virtuous nature - The Duchess resigns herself to oppression with bravery and nobility by accepting her imprisonment with an allegory to condemn social class which has restricted love and ruined lives. It hints at the brothers’ tyranny who are parasitic by feeding of others and do not deserve respect.

3. Duchess ending allegory - The main message is that materialistic value (status and power that the brothers are greedy for) does not equal intrinsic value, as appearances can be deceiving and we all have different perceptions on what holds value.

A4 S1 SUMMARY

1. Duchess bears Ferdinand’s multiple attempts to break her with mental fortitude and bravery - Ferdinand and Bosola discuss how the Duchess is bearing the hardship of imprisonment. To Ferdinand's intense annoyance, Bosola reports she displays patience and nobility. Greatly displeased, Ferdinand curses (witchcraft) his sister as he departs.

2. Light VS Darkness - Duchess enters, Bosola informs her Ferdinand intends to visit her. However, since he has solemnly vowed never to see her again, she must extinguish all lights and converse with her brother in total darkness. A sense of concealment and internal conflicts of Ferdinand.

3. Illusion, distorting light and further torment - Bosola exits, and Ferdinand reenters. To unnerve the Duchess further, he gives her a dead man's hand. The duchess believes the wax figures are real and that her family is dead. She cries out in despair and temporarily loses her stoic nature by being hopeless and unwilling to live without her family. On one of its fingers is the Duchess's wedding ring, wrenched off her finger by the Cardinal in A3 S4 during their banishment.

4. Witchcraft and cursing - Only religious act of sin committed to the Duchess but this can be justified by modern audiences after all the pain and suffering she has endured.

5. Bosola’s personality crisis + Morality VS Duty - Ferdinand reaffirms his intention to drive his sister over the brink of madness, saying he will collect the insane residents of the local hospital and place them near the Duchess's lodging. When Bosola protests such cruelty, Ferdinand gruffly overrules him. Ferdinand’s descension into lycanthropy acts in stark contrast with Bosola’s improvement.

A4 S2 SUMMARY

1. Duchess + Cariola - “I am chained to endure all your tyranny.” The Duchess acknowledges her inevitable demise and the re-emphasis of bird imagery symbolises her entrapment. She is in the most unfortunate of circumstances because she is represented as a caged bird in the darkness while she is meant to be free in the light.

2. Madmen, another attempt to break the Duchess and drive her mad - 8 madmen, symbolic of a disillusioned, ordered world. This scene opens abruptly with the motif of disease and insanity, marking the journey to a tragic climax with violent, visceral imagery. However, the Duchess' silence shows her nobility and stoicism by bearing Ferdinand’s torment with dignity and grace - creating antithesis.

3. Foreshadows Duchess’ tragic fate as she is silenced due to challenging corrupt male authority. Ironic that by trying to drive the Duchess mad, Ferdinand himself goes mad with lycanthropy from guilt and regret after her death.

4. Ferdinand’s predatory and wolfish nature by seeking to destroy the Duchess out of his incestuous love and desperate attempt to control her. He only enters once the Duchess is dead, representing how he is unable to cope with her death. In an extended dialogue with Bosola, Ferdinand displays a dramatically unhinged mind, while Bosola—strung and humiliated by Ferdinand's ingratitude and cruelty, as Ferdinand acts narcissistic—becomes steadily more repentant of his deeds.

5. A series of significant, unnecessary deaths - Duchess and Cariola are strangled by executioners (silenced). Her two youngest children are also brutally, mercilessly murdered. The Duchess meets her death with resignation and dignity whilst Cariola is scared (normal reaction). Executioners enter the scene, carrying a coffin, cords (used for strangulation), and a bell.

6. Shift of Bosola’s allegiance to the Duchess and her temporary revival - Duchess’ light has spread to destroy the brother’s corrupt darkness that has clouded the morality and judgment of Bosola. He is now a vengeful agent seeking to avenge the Duchess’ death. Duchess revives momentarily—just long enough for Bosola to assure her that Antonio still lives and that the display of wax figures was a charade. This is a pitiful attempt to make her feel better because it only emphasises the pointlessness of her death, which is cut an act early (her life is literally cut short, subverting tragic conventions again).

7. Bosola’s sense of guilt and moral conflict - Bosola has developed complex feelings for the Duchess throughout the play, ranging from admiration to pity to resentment, and his decision to take her body can be seen as a final act of connection or even redemption for him. Additionally, Bosola may have wanted to ensure the Duchess received a proper burial, as her death was unjust and he may have felt some responsibility for it.

A5 S1 SUMMARY

1. Tragic, Dramatic irony - Audience is aware of Duchess’ death in the previous scene which has caused chaos and disorder. Antonio and Delio are unaware and oblivious to the danger they are about to head into.

2. Antonio’s stubborn nature mirrors the Duchess’ hamartia of being overtly trusting and forgiving, leading to his demise - As in Acts 1 and 3, the first scene of Act 5 opens with a dialogue between Antonio and Delio. Delio tells Antonio he thinks the prospects of any reconciliation with Ferdinand and the Cardinal are remote, but Antonio once again stubbornly refuses to heed his advice out of being blinded by foolish hope and sacrificial love. This has caused him to be naive and unrealistic of the brothers’ changing for the better.

3. An act of corruption by the Cardinal by bestowing ceased property to his mistress - Pescara enters, but he promptly assents to the Cardinal's claim to the land, which is conveyed in a letter delivered by Julia, the Cardinal's mistress. After Pescara departs, Antonio tells Delio he plans to confront the Cardinal by night.

A5 S2 SUMMARY

1. Ferdinand’s descent to Lycanthropy - Pescara enters, together with a doctor. Their dialogue reveals Ferdinand now suffers from lycanthropy—a disease that causes him to believe he is sometimes transformed into a wolf. The Doctor gives a vivid description of Ferdinand several nights beforehand when he was discovered in a lane near a graveyard carrying a corpse's leg on his shoulder and howling fiercely. Ferdinand is extremely paranoid due to being haunted by his sinful past, causing him to throw himself upon his own shadow, determined to strangle it.

1. The brothers’ darkness and corruption is an incurable disease - The Doctor attempts to treat him, but to no avail. Self-inflicted insanity.

2. Lies and deceit - Feigning an explanation for Ferdinand's bizarre behavior, the Cardinal claims an apparition of an old woman—believed in family lore to be a harbinger of death—has terrified his brother. In private, the Cardinal is again deceptive with Bosola, pretending not to know of the Duchess’ death to protect his own reputation.

3. Julia appears briefly, inviting the Cardinal to supper. Her physical attraction and lustfulness to Bosola is apparent. After she exits, the Cardinal orders Bosola to murder Antonio in Milan—a death that will facilitate the Cardinal's marriage plans for the Duchess.

4. Collateral damage - Another unnecessary death. Julia re-appears, trading sexual banter with Bosola. He exploits the circumstances, urging Julia to spy for him on the Cardinal. Bosola withdraws, and the Cardinal reenters. In an aside, he worries that Ferdinand, in his madness, may reveal the Duchess's murder. He also says he is weary of Julia and would be rid of her. Julia coaxes him to disclose why he is so downhearted, at first to no avail. With mounting irritation, the Cardinal at length informs her that his sister, along with two of her children, were strangled four nights ago. Shocked, Julia exclaims she cannot conceal such a crime. But the Cardinal demands she swear to be silent. He extends a Bible to Julia, asking her to take an oath by kissing the book. In doing so, she mortally poisons herself. Bosola is forced to repeatedly exit with many bodies, symbolising the emotional burden he is forced to endure whilst uniting women’s vulnerability in corrupt patriarchal society where men fulfill their political needs.

5. Bosola’s defiance is made clear to the audience - Bosola reenters and, soon afterward Julia succumbs to the poison. The Cardinal cynically re-affirms his command to kill Antonio, and Bosola pretends to assent. After the Cardinal exits, Bosola expresses his anguish in a soliloquy, lamenting the Duchess still "haunts" him and vowing to protect Antonio.

6. Bosola carries away Julia's body because he is complicit in her death. Julia dies as a result of the poisoned Bible plot orchestrated by Ferdinand, and Bosola is involved in carrying out Ferdinand's orders. However, unlike Cariola's death, which is incidental to the main plot (unplanned - collateral damage), Julia's death is directly linked to Bosola's actions. Therefore, he takes her body away, likely to dispose of it or to ensure that Ferdinand's involvement in her death remains concealed.

A5 S3 SUMMARY

1. Setting - This scene takes place in a fort built on the ruins of an ancient abbey, close to the spot where the Duchess is buried. Death and disease. Undermining the Duchess by insulting her noble existence. Insulted in death, the Duchess did not get a proper burial.

2. Duchess’ echoes from the grave - Delio advises Antonio not to visit the Cardinal that night and to be mindful of his safety, but Antonio insists on holding his course. Eerily, an echo repeats the final phrase of each speaker in the dialogue, providing an ominous foreshadowing of death, as it says, "Thou art a dead thing" and "Never see her more." Supernatural presence and metaphysical connection between the Duchess and Antonio but tragically, this is not enough to deter him from his fatal mistake.

3. Pre-ordained fate VS Free Will - We can’t choose our fate but we can choose our actions and that unheeded superstition begets tragedy. Duchess’ love for Antonio transcends the physical realm.

A5 S4 SUMMARY

1. Symbolic unraveling and tragic buildup of the play - time has reached a fast, chaotic pace.

2. Noblemen are unaware of the Cardinal’s involvement and orchestration of the Duchess’ death, suggesting how he has successfully used religious as a facade to conceal his sinful actions. Religious corruption & hypocrisy. He laments his conscience, saying he wishes to pray and that he will murder Bosola after the latter completes the mission assigned him—namely, the murder of Antonio.

3. The Cardinal reveals his true intentions - Soliloquy and asides display his psychopathic, demonic behavior as he has a careless disregard for all the death and destruction he has caused by manipulating people. Inhumane because he dislikes having emotions and acts remorseless by being static and stagnant in moral corruption at the end by refusing to accept any responsibility.

4. Eavesdropping is echoed from earlier acts like when Ferdinand overhears the Duchess’ confession when Antonio and Cariola are hiding and how Bosola hides when Julia gets the Cardinal to tell her the truth - Bosola overhears the Cardinal's plans and witnesses the ravings of Ferdinand, who seems also to be plotting Bosola's murder.

5. Situational irony - Chaos from the lack of the Duchess’ light. Echoed from the horoscope confict previously. They meet again in the darkness when Antonio enters, and Bosola, thinking him to be the Cardinal, delivers a fatal sword thrust. Thus, Bosola kills the very man he most wanted to protect, tying him to his own tragic of frequent, incessant mistakes. Before Antonio dies, Bosola informs him of the murder of the Duchess and the two children. After Antonio's death, Bosola vows to avenge himself by killing the Cardinal.

6. Antonio and the Duchess are reunited in death - Intertwining fate as both find the assurance of death as a gift and mercy from pain and torture. Suspending disbelief, faith in reconciliation in the afterlife.

A5 S5 SUMMARY

1. Rife in death and self-destruction

2. Cardinal’s death - Self-reflection of guilt but not remorse. Focus is short-lived, however, as he is compelled to lament the burden of his guilty conscience and only confesses his sins (Catholicism) when about to die. Comical as he does not know hell despite being a religious figure and accepts being burdened by sins. He has finally paid for his web of lies and deception - satisfying by his slow, painful death and being stabbed twice as no one is coming to help him. Despite being stabbed 3 times, his death is not mentioned as a stage direction, suggesting how there will always be corruption and evil in the world.

3. Bosola’s death - His violence actions killing the Cardinal has provided great satisfaction to the audience as he has avenged the audience. He impulsively kills the servant after being blinded by rage, another victim of collateral damage. Lost of humanity, damned to hell after all his sins. Killed accidentally by Ferdinand, ironic - “scuffle”. Darkness provides clumsiness, confusion and mystery from violence and gore.

4. Ferdinand’s death - Stabs the Cardinal - “devil”. Delusional even in death by weird comparison of sword stabbing with a toothache, severely undermining the fatality. Another slow, painful death and acts narcissistic when bleeding out.

5. Fragility of life and unpredictability of death - Materialistic desire for greed and power has only led to meaningless deaths. Permanence of death provides an escape from fate and freedom from social restrictions. Bosola forces Cardinal to accept blame to make himself feel better and a last defiance to honor the Duchess’ death.

6. Sombre but hopeful ending - Pathos and Catharsis as the Duchess and Antonio’s legacy will be carried on by their eldest son who symbolises a bright and hopeful future ridding the Italian court from the brothers’ corruption. Echoes Delio’s statement → "Integrity of life is fame's best friend." Kindness and integrity is essential for a good reputation. Unity, strength, resilience and removing stains of the past, good prevails in the end.

The Wax Anatomical Figures

A macabre symbol of mortality and the fragility of human life. They also foreshadow the violence and death that will occur later in the play.

Diamonds

Diamonds are extremely precious and valuable, commonly associated with the Duchess, suggesting how she is not on rich materialistically but emotionally as well by treating Antonio with kindness and compassion despite class differences. The pilgrims also have a very good impression of her. Alternatively, it emphasises her significance in the play by spreading light and order whilst encouraging characters like Bosola in the play to change for the better. After her death, chaos erupts but her presence is so strong that even death can’t separate her and Antonio.

Madness

Madness is a recurring motif in the play, particularly in the character of Ferdinand, whose descent into madness drives much of the plot. Madness symbolizes the destructive consequences of unchecked ambition, jealousy, and revenge. For instance, Ferdinand’s incestuous love and innate desire to control the Duchess led him to impulsively kill her.

Mirrors and Reflections:

Mirrors and reflections are used symbolically to explore themes of identity, self-awareness, and perception. Characters often confront their own reflections, both literal and metaphorical, prompting moments of introspection and self-discovery. Duchess uses the mirror to observe her appearance whilst confessing her love in A3 S2 when Ferdinand sneaks in her bedchamber and both Cardinal and Bosola reflect although Bosola is the only one who changes from the better (dynamic).

Character Progression → Duchess

1. Initial Innocence and Vulnerability: At the beginning of the play, the Duchess is portrayed as a young widow who longs for love and companionship. Despite her noble birth and position of power as the ruler of Amalfi, she is depicted as vulnerable and naive, particularly in matters of the heart. Her desire to marry Antonio, a man beneath her social station, is an act of defiance against the societal norms and the wishes of her brothers, the Cardinal and Ferdinand.

2. Marriage and Maturation: The Duchess's secret marriage to Antonio marks a turning point in her character development. Through her relationship with Antonio, she experiences genuine love and emotional fulfillment, challenging the traditional power dynamics and gender roles of her society. Her willingness to defy her brothers' wishes and pursue her own happiness demonstrates her growing sense of agency and independence.

3. Resilience and Strength: As the play progresses and the Duchess faces increasing threats to her safety and autonomy, she demonstrates remarkable resilience and strength of character. Despite being subjected to psychological manipulation, physical confinement, and ultimately, violent persecution by her brothers, she refuses to capitulate to their demands or renounce her love for Antonio. Instead, she maintains her dignity and integrity, facing her fate with courage and defiance.

4. Tragic Heroism: In the final acts of the play, the Duchess emerges as a tragic heroine whose downfall is ultimately a result of her unwavering commitment to love and integrity in the face of overwhelming adversity. Her refusal to compromise her principles or submit to the oppressive forces of her society elevates her to the status of a tragic hero, whose noble qualities and tragic fate serve as a poignant commentary on the human condition.

Overall, the Duchess's character progression in "The Duchess of Malfi" is characterized by her evolution from a vulnerable and naive young woman to a resilient and heroic figure who defies societal expectations and remains true to her principles to the very end. Her journey is one of courage, sacrifice, and ultimately, tragic heroism.

Character Progression → Antonio

1. Introduction as a Servant: Antonio is introduced as the Duchess's loyal steward, entrusted with managing her estate and affairs. Initially, he is depicted as a humble and dutiful servant who is deeply devoted to the Duchess and committed to serving her interests.

2. Secret Romance and Marriage: Antonio's character undergoes a significant change when he enters into a secret romantic relationship with the Duchess and marries her against the wishes of her brothers, the Cardinal and Ferdinand. This act of defiance demonstrates Antonio's courage and willingness to risk his own safety and social standing for the sake of love.

3. Becoming a Husband and Father: As Antonio's relationship with the Duchess deepens, he assumes the role of husband and father, embracing the responsibilities and challenges that come with his newfound family life. His love for the Duchess and their children motivates him to protect them at all costs, even in the face of grave danger.

4. Persecution and Resistance: As the play progresses and the Duchess and Antonio face increasing threats from her brothers, Antonio demonstrates remarkable resilience and courage in the face of persecution. Despite being subjected to psychological manipulation, physical violence, and ultimately, imprisonment, he remains steadfast in his loyalty to the Duchess and refuses to betray her or renounce their love.

5. Tragic End: Antonio's character arc reaches its tragic conclusion when he is tortured and ultimately killed by Bosola, who is acting on behalf of the Cardinal and Ferdinand. Despite his valiant efforts to protect the Duchess and their children, Antonio is unable to prevent their tragic fates, and he dies as a martyr to love and honor.

Overall, Antonio's character progression in "The Duchess of Malfi" is characterized by his transformation from a loyal servant to a courageous and principled individual who sacrifices everything for the sake of love and integrity. His tragic fate serves as a poignant commentary on the destructive forces of jealousy, greed, and corruption that ultimately lead to his downfall.

Character Progression → Bosola

1. Introduction as a Cynical Henchman: Bosola is introduced as a cynical and opportunistic character who serves as a henchman for Ferdinand and the Cardinal. He is initially motivated by self-interest and financial gain, agreeing to spy on the Duchess and carry out their nefarious schemes in exchange for payment and favors.

2. Moral Ambiguity and Conflicted Loyalties: As the play progresses, Bosola's character becomes increasingly conflicted and morally ambiguous. While he remains loyal to his employers, Ferdinand and the Cardinal, he also begins to question the morality of their actions and the consequences of their ruthless pursuit of power. Bosola's internal conflict reflects the broader themes of morality and corruption that pervade the play.

3. Growth of Conscience: Bosola's character undergoes a significant transformation when he begins to experience pangs of conscience and remorse for his role in the Duchess's persecution. He is deeply affected by the Duchess's dignity and resilience in the face of adversity, prompting him to question his own complicity in her suffering and to reevaluate his loyalties.

4. Acts of Rebellion and Redemption: Bosola's character progression reaches a turning point when he decides to defy Ferdinand and the Cardinal and take action to protect the Duchess and her children. He becomes increasingly disillusioned with his former employers and their immoral behavior, leading him to align himself with the Duchess and Antonio in their struggle against tyranny and oppression.

5. Tragic End and Redemption: Despite his efforts to atone for his past actions and seek redemption, Bosola ultimately meets a tragic end. He is manipulated by Ferdinand into unwittingly causing the deaths of the Duchess and her children, leading to his own demise in a final act of desperate defiance. However, in his dying moments, Bosola acknowledges his role in the tragedy and expresses remorse for his sins, suggesting a glimmer of redemption and self-awareness.

Overall, Bosola's character progression in "The Duchess of Malfi" is characterized by his journey from a cynical opportunist to a tragic figure grappling with questions of morality, loyalty, and redemption. His evolution adds depth and complexity to the play's exploration of human nature and the consequences of moral corruption.

Character Progression → Cardinal

1. Introduction as a Ruthless Politician: The Cardinal is introduced as a powerful and ambitious figure within the Italian court. He is portrayed as cunning, manipulative, and willing to use any means necessary to maintain and increase his political influence. His lust for power is evident from the outset, and he is depicted as one of the primary antagonists in the play.

2. Moral Corruption and Hypocrisy: As the play progresses, the Cardinal's character becomes increasingly morally corrupt and hypocritical. Despite his outward piety and religious devotion, he engages in numerous immoral and unethical actions, including adultery, murder, and manipulation. His hypocrisy is highlighted by his willingness to use religion as a tool to justify his own immoral behavior while condemning others for similar sins.

3. Manipulation of Bosola: The Cardinal manipulates Bosola, a cynical and morally ambiguous character, into carrying out his nefarious schemes, including spying on the Duchess and orchestrating her downfall. The Cardinal's willingness to exploit others for his own gain demonstrates the depths of his moral depravity and his lack of empathy or remorse.

4. Tragic Downfall and Death: The Cardinal's character progression culminates in his tragic downfall and death. He is ultimately betrayed by Bosola, who turns against him after experiencing a crisis of conscience. In a dramatic confrontation, the Cardinal is confronted with the consequences of his actions and the extent of his moral corruption. Despite his attempts to defend himself, he is ultimately killed by Bosola, sealing his fate and bringing about his downfall.

5. Remorse and Guilt: In his final moments, the Cardinal experiences a fleeting sense of remorse and guilt for his sins. He acknowledges the consequences of his actions and expresses regret for the pain and suffering he has caused. However, it is too late for redemption, and he dies a tragic and pitiful figure, consumed by his own guilt and moral corruption.

Overall, the Cardinal's character progression in "The Duchess of Malfi" serves as a cautionary tale about the dangers of unchecked ambition and moral corruption. His descent into depravity and eventual downfall underscore the play's themes of power, corruption, and the consequences of sin.

Character Progression → Ferdinand

1. Introduction as a Protective Brother: Ferdinand is introduced as the Duchess's brother, fiercely protective of her and deeply concerned with preserving the family's honor and reputation. Initially, he appears to be a caring and devoted sibling, albeit with possessive tendencies.

2. Jealousy and Obsession: Ferdinand's character begins to unravel as he becomes consumed by jealousy and obsession over the Duchess's romantic relationships. He is unable to accept her autonomy and independence, viewing her marriage to Antonio as a threat to his own power and control.

3. Descent into Madness: As the play progresses, Ferdinand's jealousy and obsession escalate into full-blown madness. He becomes increasingly erratic and unstable, exhibiting violent and sadistic tendencies as he seeks to exert dominance over the Duchess and punish her for defying his wishes.

4. Involvement in Conspiracy: Ferdinand plays a key role in the conspiracy against the Duchess, collaborating with the Cardinal and enlisting the help of Bosola to spy on her and orchestrate her downfall. His descent into madness and moral depravity is further exacerbated by his willingness to use any means necessary to achieve his goals, including murder and torture.

5. Tragic End and Redemption: Ferdinand's character progression culminates in his tragic demise. He is ultimately consumed by his own madness and guilt, unable to escape the consequences of his actions. In his final moments, Ferdinand expresses remorse for his sins and acknowledges the depths of his moral corruption, suggesting a fleeting moment of redemption before his death.

Overall, Ferdinand's character progression in "The Duchess of Malfi" serves as a cautionary tale about the dangers of unchecked jealousy, obsession, and moral corruption. His descent into madness and eventual downfall underscore the play's themes of power, corruption, and the destructive consequences of sin.

Character Progression → Delio

1. Introduction as a Friend: Delio is introduced as a friend and confidant of Antonio, the Duchess's husband. He is portrayed as a trustworthy and principled character, providing moral support and counsel to Antonio as he navigates the challenges of his secret marriage to the Duchess.

2. Voice of Reason: Throughout the play, Delio serves as a voice of reason and morality amidst the corruption and chaos of the court. He offers sage advice to Antonio, urging him to remain true to his principles and to be wary of the machinations of those around him.

3. Witness to Tragedy: As events unfold and tragedy befalls the Duchess and her family, Delio serves as a witness to the unfolding drama. He is deeply affected by the injustices and atrocities committed by characters like Ferdinand, the Cardinal, and Bosola, and he expresses his dismay and outrage at their actions.

4. Limited Agency: Unlike some of the other characters in the play, Delio's character progression is limited by his relatively passive role in the events that unfold. He lacks the agency to directly influence the outcome of the story, instead serving as a moral compass and sounding board for Antonio and others.

5. Consistency of Character: Despite the tumultuous events that occur throughout the play, Delio remains consistent in his principles and moral convictions. He maintains his loyalty to Antonio and the Duchess, offering support and solidarity even in the face of adversity.

Overall, Delio's character progression in "The Duchess of Malfi" is characterized by his steadfastness and integrity in the face of moral corruption and tragedy. While he does not undergo significant changes or development as a character, his unwavering commitment to principles of morality and friendship serves as a contrast to the moral ambiguity and depravity of other characters in the play.

Significance of Juxtaposition

• Highlighting Contrasts: Stark contrasts between characters, situations, and themes in the play. For example, the contrast between the Duchess's innocence and the corruption of her brothers, Ferdinand and the Cardinal, underscores the play's themes of morality and corruption.

• Creating Irony and Dramatic Tension: Creates dramatic irony by placing contrasting elements side by side, allowing the audience to recognize contradictions and anticipate dramatic developments. This irony heightens tension and suspense, as the audience becomes aware of impending conflicts and tragic outcomes.

• Emphasizing Themes: Emphasize key themes and motifs in the play, such as love and death, power and corruption, and appearance versus reality. By juxtaposing contrasting elements, Webster explores the complexities of human nature and the moral ambiguities of the society in which the characters reside.

Significance of Dramatic Exits

• Heightening Emotional Impact: Confrontations, revelations, and deaths. A character's dramatic exit (Duchess) can leave a lasting impression on the audience, intensifying the emotional stakes and emphasizing the significance of the moment.

• Symbolizing Transitions: Marking shifts in power dynamics, relationships, or character arcs. For example, the Duchess's defiant exit after being threatened by her brothers symbolizes her refusal to submit to their authority and signals her determination to assert her autonomy → proto-feminism.

• Creating Suspense and Foreshadowing: Characters may exit abruptly or mysteriously, leaving the audience to speculate about their intentions or anticipate their return. These exits build anticipation and maintain the audience's engagement with the unfolding narrative. For example, the Cardinal’s swift exit before meeting Bosola implies how he physically distances himself from orchestrating the Duchess’ death and later absolves himself of any blame by using religion as a facade to conceal his corruption.

Contemporary & Modern Audience Interpretations

1. Feminist Reading: Contemporary audiences may interpret the play through a feminist lens, focusing on the character of the Duchess as a strong, independent woman who defies patriarchal norms and asserts her autonomy. They may celebrate her courage in pursuing love and independence in a society dominated by male authority figures.

2. Psychoanalytical Perspective: Modern audiences may view the play through a psychoanalytical lens, exploring the characters' psychological motivations and desires. They may analyze Ferdinand's incestuous desires for the Duchess and his subsequent descent into madness as manifestations of repressed trauma and unresolved psychological conflicts.

3. Political Allegory: Some audiences may interpret "The Duchess of Malfi" as a political allegory, drawing parallels between the power struggles and corruption depicted in the play and contemporary political dynamics. They may see the characters' ruthless pursuit of power and wealth as reflective of broader societal issues related to greed, ambition, and moral decay.

4. Postcolonial Analysis: Modern audiences may engage with the play from a postcolonial perspective, examining themes of imperialism, oppression, and resistance. They may explore the ways in which the characters' actions and attitudes are shaped by their social and cultural contexts, and how these dynamics resonate with contemporary debates about colonialism and its legacies.

5. Existentialist Interpretation: Some audiences may interpret "The Duchess of Malfi" through an existentialist lens, focusing on themes of existential angst, alienation, and the search for meaning in a seemingly indifferent universe. They may see the characters' struggles with identity, morality, and mortality as emblematic of the human condition in the face of existential uncertainty.

6. Tragic Drama: Regardless of the specific interpretive lens, both contemporary and modern audiences are likely to appreciate the play as a classic example of Jacobean tragedy, characterized by its dark themes, complex characters, and dramatic intensity. They may be drawn to its exploration of universal human experiences such as love, power, betrayal, and mortality, which continue to resonate with audiences across time and culture.

7. Early performances took place in indoor Blackfriars Theatre → was a former abbey dissolved by Henry VIII in 1538, adding additional significance to the echo scene.

Aristotle

“Pity is aroused by unmerited misfortune” - tragedy will arise out of the climactic interaction between the heroine’s “hamartia” and adverse circumstances dictated by fate.

The protagonist should be “a man who is highly renowned and prosperous…whose misfortune, however, is brought upon him by some error of judgment or frailty” - Thus, Webster diverges from these conventional Aristotelian tragic conventions by casting the Duchess, a powerful, emancipated widow with agency as the titular heroine.

Explained that the purpose of tragedy was to create catharsis (emotional conflict) through sudden, tense conflict.

Professor Jacqueline Pearson

“In The Duchess of Malfi… the heroine dies well before the end of the play so that the significance of her death can be explored”

Theatre of Blood

Violence and tragic deaths. Downfall of virtuous protagonist by corrupt antagonists.