Chapter 1

defining Anthropology

Anthropology

study of human experience

subfields in Anthro

-cultural anthropology

-linguistic anthropology

-archeology

-biological anthropology

-applied anthropology (classically there’s 4 fields, some argued applied anthro is a 5th field)

cultural anthropology

study of human societies, especially in a cross-culture context (comparing different cultures

-ethnography and ethnology

ethnography

story of people group or individual

ethnology

comparing stories

linguistic anthropology

study of language, history, use

-linguistic form and function

-social context

archeology

study of the material culture (objects) of past peoples/societies

-artifacts

-prehistoric archeologists: stone, bronze, iron age

biological anthropology

studying evolution as it relates to the human species

ethnocentrism

opinion one’s own way of life is the only way of life e.g. colonization

culture

central marker of what it means to be human

human beings are….

biocultural organisms. our defining features are co-determined by biological and cultural factors

cultural relativism

idea that different cultures have different values and its important to respect these differences without judging them based on your own perspective. it provides empathy and makes moral reasoning more complex

history of ethnocentrism (by scott lacy)

-social darwinism was influential in early cultural anthro

theory: humans evolve to become more complex so humans culturally evolve from savage to civilized

social darwinism was…

fashioned after darwin’s idea of biological evolution

anthropologists replaced ethnocentrism with

cultural relativity

Franz Boaz (father of anthro) doesn’t view culture as

a product of human biology

Franz Boaz examined how

environment shapes cultural traditions.

Rather than viewing Inuit people as primitive, Boaz viewed them as

adapted to their environment. He viewed them as neither inferior or superior, but just different

What anthropologists understand

Indigenous people were here first thousands of years prior to Europeans coming to this land. Indigenous societies existed in full cultural expression

Through the process of colonization, Aboriginals became

marginalized and subordinated

marginalized

group that is excluded from or pushed to the edge of society, often due to factors such as poverty, disability, or lack of education. e.g. Homeless individuals, people with disabilities, or immigrants who face discrimination and exclusion.

subordinated

group that is placed in a lower or inferior position, often due to factors such as race, ethnicity, gender, class, or sexual orientation. e.g. People of color in a racially segregated society, women in a patriarchal society, or members of the LGBTQ+ community in countries with discriminatory laws.

the crown ruled along side

the catholic church

7 Stages of Colonization

1. Geographical Occupancy

2. Destruction of the Indigenous social, political, cultural structures

3. External Political control (e.g. Indian Act) and appointment of colonial representatives (e.g. Indian Agent)

4. Creating economic dependence

5. Provision of low quality social services \, such as health care and education

6. Development of racist attitudes and establishment of a “color line” (segregation)

7. Transformation of racist attitudes to “structural” or “systematic” racism

Creating economic dependence

-traditional economy vs modern or dynamic economy

-prevention from entering the modern economy and power structure

-creation of a culture of poverty; hindered them from selling surplus product outside of reserve which forced lack of income

modern/dynamic economy

produces goods & services; buying & selling; employment, focus on growth etc

traditional economy

hunter-gatherer societies; produce what is needed; rely on barter

External Political control (e.g. Indian Act) and appointment of colonial representatives (e.g. Indian Agent)

-Indian Act comes after treaties

-Indian Act states who can legally identify as Indian

-1985 Indigenous people were legally allowed to leave their reserves through the Indian Act

The position of Indian agent has largely been phased out in Canada, and many of the responsibilities that were once held by Indian agents are now handled by

Indigenous governments and organizations.

The role of Indian agents was often seen as

paternalistic and controlling, and they were often accused of abusing their power. Many Indigenous people resented the authority of Indian agents and felt that they were treated unfairly.

Indian agent

government official appointed by the Canadian government to oversee the affairs of Indigenous communities on reserves. They were responsible for managing the reserves' finances, distributing government rations, and enforcing the Indian Act.

Some of the key provisions of the Indian Act include:

• Defining who is an Indian: defines who is considered an Indian for the purposes of federal law. This definition has changed over time, but it generally includes people who are registered as Indians under the Act.

• Establishing Indian reserves: establishes Indian reserves, which are lands that are set aside for the exclusive use of Indigenous peoples.

• Regulating Indian affairs: gives the federal government the power to regulate Indian affairs, such as education, health, and social services.

• Limiting the rights of Indigenous peoples: has been criticized for limiting the rights of Indigenous peoples, such as their right to vote, their right to own property, and their right to practice their traditional cultures.

Indian Act

a Canadian law that governs the relationship between the federal government and Indigenous peoples in Canada. It was first passed in 1876 and has been amended several times since then. The Act has been criticized for its discriminatory and colonialist nature, and many Indigenous peoples have advocated for its repeal.

What is structural or systematic racism?

Inequities exist between groups with a system of support including governmental laws and regulations, institutional policies and procedure, cultural practices etc

Traditional/overt biological racism gives way to modern/covert structural racism

-whiteness functioning as the “human norm”

-whiteness vs othernes

-necessary for conquest and colonization

-cultural domination

Indigenous — hunter and gatherer bands, with some agricultural tribes

-harmony with physical environment

-limited technology development

-few demands on the environment

-how population pressures

hunters were

men

gatherers were

women

Europeans — continually developing technology to dominate and exploit nature

-ethno and eurocentric in outlook'

-a mission to christianize the world

-racism as the main ideology underlying the policies

-europeans define and write the ‘real’ history

eurocentrism

worldview that centers European culture and history as the most important and superior in the world

The french brought what religion?

catholicism

The British brought what religion?

Protestantism - church of england

European and Indigenous contemporary relationship based on:

-suspicion

-disrespect

-mistrust

-segregation

-paternalistic attitudes and behaviour

-discriminatory and biased legal provisions

-overt conflicts e.g. Oka 1990

The Oka Crisis of 1990

conflict in Quebec, Canada, involving a standoff between Mohawk Warriors and the Canadian Armed Forces.

Paternalistic

attitude that treats people in a way that is fatherly or overbearing, implying a lack of respect for their independence. It involves making decisions for others without their full consent or input, often under the guise of knowing what is best for them.

Examples of significant steps toward reform

-Charter of rights and freedoms in 1982 (gives Indigenous peoples ability to appeal in court when rights are infringed)

-Numerous reports and studies on Aboriginal self-government and land claims e.g. penner report

-The Royal Commission on Aboriginal peoples, 1996

-Recognition of Aboriginal scholarship

penner report

a groundbreaking report prepared by the Special Committee of the House of Commons on Indian Self-Government in Canada. It was issued in November 1983 and named after committee chairman Keith Penner.

The Penner report made a series of recommendations that promoted the concept of self-governing First Nations. These recommendations included:

• Scrapping the Indian Act: The report called for the repeal of the Indian Act, a colonial-era law that had restricted the rights and freedoms of First Nations people.

• Establishing self-governing First Nations: The report proposed the creation of self-governing First Nations governments, with the power to make decisions on matters such as education, health, and economic development.

• Transferring federal powers to First Nations: The report recommended that the federal government transfer powers and resources to First Nations governments, so that they could exercise greater control over their own affairs.

New Conceptualization

-Equal, flexible and evolving relationships instead of “assimilation”

-Focus on sanctioned (enforceable rights)

-At the government level, a new political ethic

• at the public level, a new commitment to being direct, honest, accountable

• Recognition that relationship must be restructured and be mutual (unilateral)

Press reports of confrontation are biased

-They focus on specific complaints and issues

-They overlook broader historical issues

-They reveal short-term perspectives

-They imply that the fault lies largely with Aboriginals e.g. Oka Crisis

Oka Crisis (Oka, Quebec) Summary

-1990: A deeply divisive land claims standoff between Indigenous people and authorities

-Oka: A village 70km west of Montreal

-Mohawks: Protested plans to expand a golf course onto land they claimed as ancient burial ground, and set up a barricade

-Provincial police raided the barrier on July 11

-Result: 78-day standoff between protestors and authorities; death of police Cpt. Marcel Lemay

-Harming of Waneek Horn-Miller (age 14)

Writing history

-empowered and dominant groups usually define, write and explain history—which becomes the “official” version

-French, then English-speaking euro-Canadians monopolize their version of history vs. the Indigenous perspective

majority rules while

respecting the minority

overt

refers to actions or behaviors that are open, obvious, or easily seen. They are done openly and without concealment.

covert

refers to actions or behaviors that are hidden, secret, or disguised. They are done secretly or in a way that is not easily noticed.

walmart story

surface details vs deeper history

All Canadians are able to see historical events as casual agents of today’s actions

False

Racism today

is built into the structures of Canadian Society

Colonization

emerged out of the belief that explorers had the right to claim lands for the “mother” country

History of relations (Post confederation)

-calls for reform in Indigenous policy after WW2 begin to emerge

-the belief of social justice and the interest in cultural diversity begins to influence govt policy (multiculturalism) e.g. Harthorn report (1967)

Hawthorn Report (1967)

-promoted implementation of new policies in Indigenous health & education

-central assumption was eventual assimilation

Historical Interpretation and Connotations:

• Words and events can have different meanings and connotations depending on the time period and the perspective of the writer.

• Published historical accounts may not accurately reflect the author's original intent due to economic pressures.

Dominant Group Power and Historical Narrative:

• Empowered groups have the ability to define history and provide their own explanation of the present.

• In Canada, Euro-Canadians have been the dominant group and have shaped the historical narrative to serve their own interests.

Historical Focus and Neglect:

• In the 18th and 19th centuries, Canadians were primarily focused on westward expansion and economic development.

• Aboriginal people and their way of life were largely neglected and marginalized.

• Government policies towards Aboriginal people were often driven by economic interests and a desire to control the territory.

Historical Misrepresentations:

• Aboriginal people have been portrayed negatively in history books, often as "savage" and "heinous."

• This portrayal has been used to justify colonization and marginalization.

• Examples of misrepresentations include the depiction of scalping as an exclusively Aboriginal practice and the downplaying of Aboriginal contributions and achievements.

King writes

“most of us think history is the past. It’s not. History is the stories we tell about the past

Seneca tribe's opposition to the Kinzua Dam project and the subsequent efforts to stop its construction

• The Seneca tribe wrote to President John F. Kennedy in 1961, requesting that he terminate the project.

• They believed that Kennedy would be sympathetic to their cause due to his stance on civil rights and international treaties.

• However, the project proceeded despite significant public support for the Seneca and efforts by their supporters in Congress to move the dam site.

• The author suggests that the public support and political hand-wringing were largely for show, and that the primary concern was the economic benefits of the dam.

• The text points out that many dam sites in North America have been located on Indian land, suggesting that economic interests may have taken precedence over treaty obligations.

• The author also mentions the historical context of the time, including Voltaire's imprisonment and the earthquake in Antigua.

Land Dispute Between Mohawk and Sulpician Missionaries

• French land grant: France granted land along the Ottawa River to the Sulpician missionaries in 1717.

• Mohawk claim: The Mohawk tribe claimed the land as their own and opposed the French grant.

• Ongoing dispute: The dispute between the Mohawk and Sulpician missionaries continued for over 150 years.

Mohawk Protests and Legal Challenges

• Onasakenrat's protest: In 1868, Chief Joseph Onasakenrat led a protest against the Sulpicians' continued possession of the land.

• Legal challenges: The Mohawk launched legal protests in 1959 and 1977 to reclaim the land.

• Rejection of land claim: The Mohawk's 1977 land claim was rejected due to legal technicalities.

Oka Crisis and Mohawk Resistance

• Expansion plans: In 1989, the town of Oka announced plans to expand the golf course and build condominiums on Mohawk land.

• Mohawk occupation: The Mohawk occupied the Pines forest to protect their land and cemetery.

• Violent confrontation: In July 1990, a violent confrontation occurred between the Mohawk and the SQ, resulting in deaths on both sides.

Escalation of the Oka Crisis

• Reinforcements: The SQ was reinforced by the RCMP and Canadian military, leading to a significant escalation of the crisis.

• Prolonged standoff: The standoff between the Mohawk and authorities lasted for 78 days.

Missed Opportunities for Resolution in Oka Crisis

• Ciaccia's proposal: John Ciaccia proposed that the federal government purchase the disputed land and give it to the Mohawk.

• Government inaction: Despite Ciaccia's recommendation, the government failed to take action to resolve the dispute.

Costs and Consequences of Oka Crisis

• High costs: The Oka Crisis cost over $200 million.

• Delayed resolution: The land was eventually purchased by the federal government and given to the Mohawk in 1997, but at a much higher cost than if it had been resolved earlier.

• Missed opportunities for justice: The text suggests that the Canadian government prioritized financial considerations over justice for the Mohawk.

Oka Crisis and Future Struggles

• Georges Erasmus' prediction: Erasmus predicted that the Oka Crisis would not be the last conflict between Indigenous peoples and the Canadian government.

• Significance of the Oka Crisis: The crisis highlighted the ongoing struggle for Indigenous rights and the potential for future confrontations.

The Treaty of Medicine Creek in 1854

• forced Indigenous tribes to give up their land in exchange for money and fishing rights.

• Leschi's resistance: Chief Leschi of the Nisqually tribe resisted the treaty, leading to the Puget Sound War.