FORENSIC MID-TERM CONTENT

Latency Stage

6 - puberty

Personality development

Unconditioned Response

Natural, unlearned physiological response to a trigger (blinking from a dry eye)

Conditioned Stimulus

Previously neutral event that triggers a physiological response (banging on the table)

Conditioned Response

The physiological response to the conditioned stimulus, less strong than the unconditioned stimulus (conditioned blinking)

B.F. Skinner

Extends work of John Watson to complex behaviours and not needing an association with an unconditioned stimulus - focuses on punishment and positive reinforcement using rat psychology

Operant Conditioning - Step 1

Identify the goal and direction of intervention

Choleric Humour (yellow bile)

Cranky - common assault

Melancholic Humour (black bile)

Sad

Phlegmatic Humour (phlegm)

Apathetic - buying and reselling stolen goods

Sanguine Humour (blood)

Temperamental - "crimes of passion" like murder, rape and assault

Differential Association Theory

Individuals learn to become criminals through association with others who hold criminal beliefs

Id

First to appear, completely unconscious - gratification of our unconscious instincts (desire to get whatever we want)

Ego

Second to appear, both conscious and unconscious - referee between the Id and Superego

Superego

Last to appear, mostly unconscious (represents the quest for moral perfection)

Oral Stage

Birth - 2 years

Child only cares about sucking and chewing

Anal Stage

2 - 3 years

Conflict associated with defecation and social rules - Ego develops

Phallic Stage

4 - 5 years

Emphasis on the genital area - Superego develops

Genital Stage

Puberty onwards

Various fixations (urges) are displayed through behaviour

Classical Conditioning

When a conditioned stimulus is associated with an unconditioned stimulus, it will elicit a conditioned response

Unconditioned Stimulus

An event thats automatically triggers a physiological response (blowing on the eye)

Operant Conditioning - Step 2

Select the reinforcement type

Primary Reinforcer

A stimulus that is naturally reinforcing to an individual (air, water, food)

Secondary Reinforcer

A stimulus that is only reinforcing to an individual through association with a primary reinforcer (money)

Operant Conditioning - Step 3

Select specific reinforcement type (punishment/reward)

Punishment

Unpleasant stimulus to stop a behaviour

Reward

Pleasant stimulus to reinforce/maintain a behaviour

Operant Conditioning - Step 4

Identify most effective stimulus for the individual

Operant Conditioning - Step 5

Select the schedule of reinforcement

Continuous Reinforcement

Reinforcement is given after each correct response

Partial Reinforcement

Reinforcement is given only sometimes

S.M.A.R.T

Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Realistic, Time-Restricted

Strain Theory

Crime is a product of individuals with a lower socio-economic status - crime is the sole way to attain necessities

Personality

The unique and relatively enduring internal and external aspects of an individual's character that influences behaviour in different situations.

Phrenology

Franz Joseph Gall - Personality reflected by shape of the skull

Endomorph

Love of comfort, relaxed - unlikely to commit offences

Mesomorph

Active, adventurous, desire for power - more likely to commit offences

Ectomorph

Socially anxious, private, emotionally restrained - likely to commit crimes behind the scenes (cyberbullying etc)

Kohlberg’s Theory (pedagogical)

Children go through 6 stages in moral development

Moral Development Stage 1: Obedience/Punishment

Birth - 5 years
Decisions made based on reward or punishment

Moral Development Stage 2: Naively Egotistical Stage

Ages 6-9 years
Decisions based on how much they get what they want by doing so

Moral Development Stage 3: Good Person Stage

Early adolescence
Decisions based on “appearing to do the right thing”

Moral Development Stage 4: Social Order Stage

Late adolescence
Decisions based on the chaos that would ensue if everybody did what they wished

Moral Development Stage 6: Contract/Legalistic

Early adulthood
Decisions based on the law/contracts

Moral Development Stage 6: Conscience Stage

Middle adulthood
decisions based on a realisation that laws are created by people and perceived as random, biased, unjust or subjective —> only thing to guide behaviour is their conscience

No correlation

no relationship between two factors

Positive correlation

As one factor increases, the other also increases

Negative correlation

As one factor increases, the other decreases

Psychology

The science of behaviour and mental processes

Forensic Psychology

The understanding and production of psychological knowledge that is applicable in an integrative fashion

Emergence

Mind controls the body

Epiphenomenalism

Body controls mind

Interactionism

Mind and body both causally affect each other

Psychophysical parallelism

Mind and body are not causally related

Law

Rules established by a governing authority to institute and maintain orderly coexistence

Mens Rea

Guilty mind

Actus Reas

Guilty act

Stare Decisis

The idea that future decisions of a court should follow the example set by the prior decisions

Variable Ratio

Reinforcement is given after a varying number of correct responses have occured

Fixed Ratio

Reinforcement is given after a specific number of correct responses has occured

Biological/Freud Basis of Personality

Unconscious, childhood and psychosocial development combine to determine your psychological make-up and subsequent behaviour

Behavioural/Pavlov/Watson/Skinner Basis of Personality

Behaviours formed through associations with reinforcement or punishment

Albert Bandura

Extends the work of Skinner by arguing that humans understand language and have a higher cognitive capacity than other animals so may “learn” through modelling and the use of non-direct reinforcers (threats and punishments)

Modelling

Concept of operant conditioning can be applied in humans through “seeing” others who receive direct reinforcement (punishment or reward)

Effective Social Learning - Attention

Make threats, ‘dangle cheese’

Effective Social Learning - Memory

Humans only remember 5-9 pieces of info at a time in short term

Effective Social Learning - Ability

Physical capability to complete a task

Effective Social Learning - Motivation

Desire to receive the results

Threats and Promises

Because humans have lagnuage, we can understand the connection between words and potential direct reinforcement (punishment or reward)

Effective Threats and Promises - Limited Use

The less often a T or P is used, the more effective they are

Effective Threats and Promises - Specificity

The more specific a T or P is, the more effective it is

Effective Threats and Promises - Realistic

The more realistic a T or P is, the more effective it is

Effective Threats and Promises - History/Reputation

T or P effectiveness will be weighed against your reputation for follow-through

Effective Threats and Promises - Reciprocal Impact

The more a T or P is seen to cost the person issuing the statement, the more effective it will be

LiSHiRR

Limited use, Specificity, History/Reputation, Realistic, Reciprocal impact

Humanistic/Maslow/Rogers Basis of Personality

• Self-actualisation

• Humans are basically good

• Holistic approach to personality

Active listening

Engaged listening through the use of verbal and non-verbal indicators - responsive echoing

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Physiological, Safety, Love/belonging, Esteem, Self-Actualisation

Maslow - Physiological

Breathing, food, water, shelter, excretion

Maslow - Safety

Security of: body, employment, family, health, property

Maslow - Love/belonging

Friendship, family, s*xual intimacy - i got censored :(

Maslow - Esteem

Self esteem, confidence, achievement, respect of others

Maslow - Self-Actualisation

Morality, creativity, spontaneity, problem solving, lack of prejudice, acceptance of facts

Cognitive/Kelly Basis for Personality

Thinking is the basis of personality

The Fundamental Postulate

1. Ability to think

2. Thinking guides actions

3. Able to predict others’ behaviours

CBA - Cognitive

Goal of the program is to positively impact the thinking of the client

CBA - Behavioural

The approach employed is based on a reward/punishment strategy

CBA - Humanistic

The context for delivery of programs should be holistic, client-centred and include active listening

Objective Crime Data - Public Experience

Surveys which ask people to estimate their experience of crime during a specified time period

Objective Crime Data - Police Records

Includes crime reports as well as recorded crimes

Objective Crime Data - Court Statistics

Composed of data on the number and type of court cases

Objective Crime Data - Prison Statistics

Composed of data on the number of prisoners and crimes

Objective Crime Data - Offender Surveys

Gather information on number and type of offences committed

Challenges of Objective Crime Rates

• Definitions of crime

• Accurate recording

• Multiple recording

• Record number of crimes vs number of people committing crimes

Cultivation Theory

Heavy consumptions of mass media leads to an unrealistic perception of crime rates and a subsequent higher level of fear of crime

Cognitive Theory

Fear of crime is the product of:

• The strength of belief about the likelihood of an event

• The perceived level of seriousness of experiencing the event

Social Cognition

Gaining an understanding of how people make judgements by examining how they employ a variety of cognitive processes to evaluate social information

• Based on a computer model

Cognitive Miser

Human tendency to spend as little cognitive effort as possible on tasks unless provided with adequate opportunity and motivation

Input Bias - Vividness

In decision making, the tendency to place cognitive weight on information that is bizarre, abnormal or dramatic

Input Bias - Negativity

In decision making, the tendency to place cognitive weight on information that portrays individuals, issues and objects in a less favourable light

Input Bias - Primacy

In decision making, the tendency to place cognitive weight on earlier information and less cognitive weight on later information