Psychology - Term 3 Studies and Paper 3

Fagot - Conclusion

This study demonstrates enculturation as it shows parents directly teaching andinstructing children about what is and isn't appropriate behaviour according to their culture's gender norms.

Aim - Levine et al

To see the effect of in-group bias on helping.

Method - Levine et al

Study was carried out on a group of 45 male students who wre self-identified Manchester United fans. Upon arrival, they were told the experiment had been moved to a larger room across campus. As they walked to the other room a confederate ran down a grassy hill, slipped, and fell over holding onto his ankle shouting in pain. The confederate wore either a Manchester United team shirt, a Liverpool FC shirt, or a plain t-shirt.

Results - Levine et al

The students were 4 times more likely to help a fellow Manchester United fan than a Liverpool fan. The plain shirt and Liverpool conditions were similar.

Conclusion - Levine et al.

The difference between the non-Manchester groups was minimal which demonstrates that it did not matter that Liverpool was their rival, it was more influential that the confederate was a member of their in-group.

Bandura - Aim

to investigate if children would be more likely to imitate violent behaviour of a same-sex role model than the opposite sex.

Bandura - Method

The study involved a sample of 36 girls and 36 boys from Stanford University nursery who were aged 3-6 years old. They were split into 3 groups (aggressive, non-aggressive, and no role model). In the experimental groups, groups of 12 children had either a same-sex role model or opposite sex. These role models then were put into a room with a bobo doll as the children observed. The aggressive role model abused the bobo doll and the non-aggressive role model played with toys. The control group had no role model. The children were then taken to another room where there was a bobo doll and toys but were told not to play with them to stimulate aggression. They were then taken to another room with a bobo doll and toys and were observed for 20min (covertly).

Bandura - Results

The results found that children showed more aggressive behaviour in the aggressive role model condition, especially when the role model was the same sex and reciprocated the violent acts of the model. Boys were also found to be more aggressive than girls.

Bandura - Conclusion

children are more likely to replicate behaviour from observational learning, even more so when the model is of the same sex. Thus this study shows that behaviour is learnt, modelled and replicated from role models from a young age/growing up which is where primary learning takes place. Supports Social Cognitive Theory and Social Learning Theory.

Hamilton & Gifford - Aim

to investigate how our expectations of events can distort how we process the information

Hamilton & Gifford - Method

Participants read descriptions of various people from imaginar groups: Group A & Group B. Group A was considerably larger than group B. The readings contained descriptions of the individuals group membership and a specific behaviour. These behaviours were either helpful or harmful. (e.g. John, a teacher in Group B, screams at his students). Participants were asked to give their impressions of a typical group member.

Hamilton & Gifford - Results

Participants read descriptions of various people from imaginar groups: Group A & Group B. Group A was considerably larger than group B. The readings contained descriptions of the individuals group membership and a specific behaviour. These behaviours were either helpful or harmful. (e.g. John, a teacher in Group B, screams at his students). Participants were asked to give their impressions of a typical group member.

Hamilton & Gifford - Conclusion

There was a perceived association (correlation) between undesirable behaviour and group membership. The researchers argued that the illusory correlation was caused by event distinctiveness: encountering a member of the minority group is a distinct event, and so is encountering an instance of undesirable behaviour. Co-occurrence of distinct events is overestimated and hence can lead to an illusory correction.

Steele & Aronson - Aim

to see how stereotype threat affects test performance in African Americans.

Steele & Aronson - Method

The sample was made up of 76 male and female, black and white undergraduates from Stanford University. There were two independent variables in the study: the race of the participant and the test descriptions. The participants were given a standardized test of verbal ability - similar to the SAT - and were told one of two things: 1. It is a test to diagnose your intellectual ability; 2. it is a test of your problem-solving skills; In the first condition, the focus was on "verbal ability"; on the second two conditions, it was on "problem-solving." Participants were randomly assigned to one of the conditions; however, they made sure that there were equal numbers of participants in each condition.

Steele & Aronson - Results

There was no significant difference between male and female participants. , African American participants performed less well than their white counterparts in the stereotype threat condition, but in the non-threat condition, their performance equalled that of their white counterparts.

Steele & Aronson - Conclusion

Stereotype threat occurs when one is in a situation where there is a threat of being judged or there is a fear of doing something that would inadvertently confirm the stereotype.

Kearins - Aim

to see how the Aborigines spatial memory compared to those of Australian children.

Kearins - Method

44 adolescents (12-16) of desert Aboriginal origin and 44 of white Australian origin. Keaarins placed 20 objects on a board divided into 20 squares. Aborigine and white Australian childer were told to study the boar for 30 seconds. Then the objects were gathered together and placed in a pile in the center of the board and the children were asked to place the objects on the board in the same arrangement.

Kearins - Results

the results showed that the Aboriginal correctly relocated more objects than did white Australian children.It appears that their way of life has a significant impact on how and what they remember. Cole and Scriber's study showed, children leared memory strategies through their formal education

Kearins - Conclusion

Kearins argues that the first generation settled parents raised their children in a way that reflects the traditional lifestyle and values - and this, in turn, affects the way that they learn.

Finkelstein - Aim

to identify if there were different reasons for why individualists and collectivist engaged in voluntary, prosocial behaviour

Finkelstein - Method

Participants were 194 American undergraduates who completed online questionnaires. They were asked questions related to volunteer activity, including questions about

Time spent volunteering; Individualism-collectivism; Volunteer motives; and Volunteer role identity

Finkelstein - Results

Collectivism was found to be more strongly related than was individualism to altruistic motivations and the desire to strengthen social ties. Collectivism, but not individualism, was found to be associated with the development of a volunteer role identity. Individualism was most closely associated with career-related volunteer objectives.

Finkelstein - Conclusion

Individualists and collectivists differ, not in their willingness to volunteer, but in why they choose to volunteer.

Fagot - Aim

To investigate if parents treat children differently depending on the gender of the child

Fagot - Method

- Observation

- toddlers and parents were observed in their homes using a checklist

- the parental reaction when the child was not "gender appropriate" was measured

Fagot - Results

Parents reacted significantly more favorably to the child when the child was engaged in gender-appropriate behavior and were more likely to give negative responses to "gender inappropriate" behaviors. In the follow up interviews with the parents, it was found that the parents perceptions of their interactionswith their children did not correlate with what was observed by the researchers, indicating that this is not aconscious behaviour.

Unger - Aim

To examine the association between acculturation and obesity-related behaviours—physical activity and fast-food consumption.

Unger - Method

619 Asian-American and 1385 Hispanic adolescents in Southern California completed surveys in 6th and 7th grade. The 6th grade survey assessed acculturation with the AHIMSA acculturation scale and a measure of English language usage. The 7th grade survey assessed frequency of moderate-to-intense physical activity and frequency of eating fast-food.

Unger - Results

◦Acculturation to the US, assessed in 6th grade, was significantly associated with a lower frequency of physical activity participation and a higher frequency of fast-food consumption in 7th grade. The significant associations persisted after controlling for covariates and were consistent across gender and ethnic groups.

Unger - Conclusion

Acculturation to the US is a risk factor for obesity-related behaviors among Asian-American and Hispanic adolescents. Health promotion programs are needed to encourage physical activity and healthy diets among adolescents in acculturating families

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