ANFS345 Exam 4

Glycolysis’s role

-Breaks down glucose to produce 2 pyruvic acid and 2 NET ATP

-Does not produce the most ATP

-Produced lactic acid which is bad for the body

Gylcolysis step 1

Glucose becomes G6P

Uses 1 ATP

Gycolysis step 2

G6P becomes F6P

Glycolysis step 3

F6P becomes F16DP

Uses 1 ATP

Glycolysis step 4

F1,6DP is broken in half and becomes DHAP and GAP

Glycolysis step 5

GAP becomes 1,3DPG through phosphorylation

Glycolysis step 6

1,3DPG becomes 2 3PG

Produces 2 ATP

Glycolysis step 7

2 3PG becomes 2 2PG

Glycolysis step 8

2 2PG becomes 2 PEP

Produces 2 H20 molecules

Glycolysis step 9

2 PEP becomes 2 pyruvic acid

Produces 2 ATP

Krebs Cycle

-Produces the most ATP

-Occurs in Mitochondria

-Requires oxygen but does not “use” the oxygen

-Pyruvic acid is converted to Acetyl coenzyme A to begin the cycle (Produces CO2)

Krebs Cycle Products

-Produces 3 molecules NADH2: each gives potential 2.5 ATP

-1 FADH2: gives potentially 1.5 ATP

-1 GTP molecule: 1 ATP

-runs 2 times bc of 2 pyruvic acid

Electron transport chain

-4 complexes sit on mitochondrial membrane

-use oxygen as final electron acceptor

-generates proton gradient

-10 protons in intermembrane space

Oxidative Phosphorylation

-ATP synthase or complex 5

-diffusion of protons provides energy to synthesize ATP

Uncoupling protein

-part of oxidative phosphorylation

-generates heat instead of ATP, used to keep warm like a polar bear in hibernation

-makes membrane permeable to H+

-used for weight loss but people started dying

Lactic acid metabolism when O2 is present

-Lactic acid gets converted back to pyruvic acid so pH levels go back to normal

-pyruvic acid used in Krebs cycle and ETC

Oxygen deficit

-When exercise begins, the difference between the theoretical O2 demand and actual O2 uptake at start of exercise

EPOC (excess postexercise oxygen consumption)

-Difference between theoretical O2 demand and actual O2 uptake at the end of exercise (surplus)

Seasonality of Reproduction

-when females are pregnant depends on location due to seasonality

-think of the mouse picture/diagram

Uterus

-where implantation of embryo and growth of fetus occurs

Cervix

muscular contractions, lots of sensory neurons

Primordial follicle

-born with, over time body selects best ones to become primary follicles

-develop as a fetus

Primary follicles

-about 10 are formed from the primordial follicle

Secondary follicle

-only 1 formed from primary follicles

Oocyte

-released and travels down oviduct to potentially be fertilized

-female gamete

Ruptured follicle

-left behind when oocyte is ovulated

-becomes corpus luteum

Mature corpus luteum

-formed from ruptured follicle

-has signaling to sustain pregnancy and progesteron

Degenerating corpus luteum

-occurs if no pregnancy

Ovary

-where female gametes mature and are released from

-under constant hormone regulation

-lots of blood vessels

Ovulation

-release of a oocyte from the ovary

-300-400 in a lifetime

-reducing ovulation reduces ovarian cancer

-birds have 1 ovary

-occurs around day 15 of cycle in humans

Luteinizing Hormone (LH)

Triggers ovulation

FSH

allows follicle to mature

Estrogen

peaks around time of ovulation, regulated by inhibin

Progesterone

allows for the sustain of pregnancy

Aromatase

converts androgens into estrogen

Ovulation in rabbits

-occurs very shortly after copulation which only happens during estrus

-neurons in cervix trigger secretion of norepinepherine that secretes GNRH

-GNRH travels to anterior pituitary and releases LH and FSH to trigger ovulation

Testis

-produce sperm and testosterone

-need to be cooler than rest of body

-more lifetime partners= bigger testis

Semen

-contains nutrients for sperm

-prostate gland and seminal vesicles secrete

Leydig cells

-in testis and seminiferous tubules

-secrete testosterone

Sperm cells

-contain lots of mitochondria

-bring male DNA to female DNA

-graded on motility

Testosterone levels

-surge during fetal development for male genitalia

-surge at puberty, when at high nutritional plane

Fertilization step 1-3

-sperm digest granulosa cells (provide nutrients ) surrounding the oocyte

-sperm head binds to species specific receptors on zona pellucida and release enzymes

Fertilization steps 4-6

-sperm cuts path through zona pellucida and crosses perivitelline space

-proteins bind with Juno proteins in oocyte

-stops accepting new sperm

-sperm releases contents into cytoplasm

Hormones at fertilization

-estrogen and progesterone start to surge

-hCG (human chorionic gonadotropin)

Oxytocin

-secreted in posterior pituitary

-stimulates smooth muscle contraction and prostoglandin production

Prostagladins

stimulate contractions

Costs of reproduction

-mothers energy intake reaches maximum just before weaning

Lactation

-prolactin stimulates milk secretion into lumen

-oxytocin stimulates ejection of milk from lumen

Ionotropic transduction (sensory)

-chemical stimulus triggers channels to open by direct action

-need diff in concentration

-channel specific to that ion

Metabotropic transduction (sensory)

-stimulus triggers channels to open indirectly via a second messenger
-ligand + receptor, specific

-often in conjunction w/ ionotropic

Merkel disc

-touch and pressure

-tonic receptor

Ruffini ending

-pressure

-tonic receptor

Meissner corpuscle

-touch

-phasic receptor

Pacinian corpuscle

-vibration

-extremely phasic receptor

Anatomy of mammalian ear

-Pinna/external ear

-Tympanic membrane (eardrum)

-Malleus, Incus, Stapes

-Cochlea

Tympanal organ

hearing organ in insects, membrane w/ air sacs and sensory neurons

Taste

-different kinds of papillae on tongue

-channel proteins

-sweet, umami, bitter, all have G-protein couples receptors

-sour has a channel in conjunction w/ another protein

-salt is mediated by Na+ ions

Olfactory receptors

-sensory units between olfactory bulb and olfactory epithelium in the cribriform plate

-granule cells layer on top of mitral cells

-cilia sense the smell

Rhodopsin

-key molecule in eyes, changes shape

-rods and cones

-rod helps with dark, cones help with light