PSY311 Exam 2 NCSU Meade

Self-concept

Our knowledge about who we are

Self-awareness

The act of thinking about ourselves

Identity is a combination of ______________ and ___________________

self-concept

self-awareness

Do animals have ideas of self-concept?

(red-dot mirror test)

Few: chimps, orangutans, and some dolphins

(only species recognizing red dot on body as not a different animal)

Self-recognition develops around ____ months

18

A child self-concept is ____________ while during maturity, we place more emphasis on our _____________________.

concrete

psychological states

Self-Schemas

Mental structure to organize knowledge about themselves (influences what they notice, think, and remember about themselves)

Self-Reference Effect

People remember information better if relate to themselves

Independent view of self

Defining oneself from internal thoughts, feelings, and emotions

(most western cultures)

Interdependent View of Self

Defining oneself in terms of relationships to others

(Asian and nonwestern cultures)

Women have more _____________ meaning they focus on _____________________.

relational interdependence

close relationships

Men have more __________________ meaning they focus on __________________.

Collective interdependence

memberships of large groups

Humans appear to be the only species that can __________ and engage in ______________.

Imagine events (not happened)

long-term planning

The self regulates...

behavior

choices

future plans

Self-regulatory resource model

self control considered limited resource (gets tired and use builds strength)

Introspection

people look inwards and examine themselves

Self-awareness theory

Idea that when people focus on themselves, they compare themselves to internal standard and values

Self-focus is not always _____________ or ___________.

damaging

aversive

Extremes of self-focus

cant feel like they can escape = sexual and addiction problems

Causal Theories

theories about cause of our behavior/feeling

Causal theories are often ___________________.

learned from our culture.

ex: absence makes the heart grow fonder

Consequences of introspection about reasons

attitudes do not predict future attitudes/behaviors

Self-perception theory

we infer our inner feelings from behavior when we are not sure how to feel

people judge if behavior reflects how they feel or if it was sitation

Intrinsic motivation

desire to participate because we enjoy it

Extrinsic motivation

desire to participate because of external reasons

Overjustification effect

tendency for people to view behavior caused by extrinsic reasons (underestimates what is attributed to intrinsic)

preserving intrinsic interest

rewards undermine interest only if interest was initially high

Performance-contingent rewards better than task-contingent rewards

Task-contingent rewards

reward given no mater how well task is done

Performance-contingent rewards

based on how well task is performed

reasons-generated attitude change

attitude change resulting from thinking about the reasons for attitude change

Two-factor theory of emotion

idea that emotional experiences is a result of people

1) experiencing physiological arousal

2) seeking appropriate explanations for it

Misattribution of arousal

process where people mistake what is causing them to feel aroused

__________ from one thing can ________ how they interpret other feeling.

Residual arousal

enhance

Appraisal Theories of emotion

Theory stating emotion results from people interpretations and explanations of events (even in absence of physiological arousal)

Aroused = _____________

Not aroused = ______________

Two factor theory

cognitive appraisal theory

Social comparison theory

idea we learn about our own abilities and attitudes by comparing ourselves to other people

We engage in social comparison when _______

there is no objective standard to measure against when uncertain about themselves.

Who do we normally compare ourselves to?

anyone around

Upward social comparison

comparing ourselves to people who are better than we are (where we aspire)

Downward social comparison

compare ourselves to people who are worse than us (feeling better about ourselves)

Social tuning

Process where we adopt other peoples attitudes.

Impression management

attempt to get other to see us as we want to be seen

Self monitoring

individual difference related to how much you are aware of the impression of behavior on others.

Ingratiation

process where people flatter, praise, or try to make themselves likable to others

Self-handicapping

people create obstacles and excuses for themselves if they do poorly on a task (avoid blaming themselves)

Self-enhancement

tendency to focus on present/positive information to minimize negative information

cognitive dissonance

discomfort resulting from implication that we behave in ways that were irrational, immoral or stupid

cognitive dissonance is powerful when it ___________.

threatens self-image

Ways to reduce cognitive dissonance

1) change behavior

2) changing one of the dissonant cognition

3) adding new cognition.

"I'm going to stop smoking"

Changing behavior

"I dont need to quit, I like smoking"

changing cognition

"Smoking relaxes me and keeps my weight down, which benefits me"

Adding cognitions

Impact Bias

tendency to overestimate intensity/duration of emotional reactions to future negative events

Process of reducing dissonance is ____________

unconscious

The more __________ a decision, the _________ the dissonance.

important

greater

postdecision dissonance

dissonance aroused after making a decision (reduced by enhancing attractiveness of chosen alternative and devalue rejected choices)

Justification of effort

tendency to increase liking for something the worked hard to attain

external justification

reason or explanation for dissonant person behavior residing outside the individual

internal justification

reduction of dissonance by changing something about oneself.

Counterattitudinal advocacy

stating opinion/attitude that runs counter to ones belief or attitude

Insufficient punishment

dissonance aroused by lack of sufficient external justification for resisting desired activity

self-persuasion

long-lasting form of attitude change resulting for attempts at self-justification.

The _________ the reward, the ____________ the change.

smaller

more permanent

Ben Franklin Effect

Theory predicts we like someone more after doing them a favor

attitudes

evaluations of people, objects, and ideas.

Attitudes do not always match _______

behavior

How to affect attitude responses

Word choice in questions

Order of questions

Environmental cues

explicit attitudes

attitudes that we consciously endorse and can easily report

Implicit Attitudes

attitudes that are involuntary, uncontrollable, and unconscious (at times)

Three antecedents of attitude

Affective, cognitive, behavioral

Affective antecedents

emotional reactions towards attidue

Cognitive antecedents

thoughts and beliefs about attitude

Behavioral component

actions or observable behavior towards the attitude

Cognitively based attitude

attitude based primarily on people's beliefs about properties of an object.

Affectively based attitude

attitude based on people feelings and values about the object

Affectively based attitudes can result from

1) peoples values

2) sensory reaction

3) Aesthetic reaction

4) conditioning

Classical conditioning

stimulus elicits emotional response and is repeatedly paired with neutral stimulus until neutral elicits same emotional properties

Operant conditioning

behaviors freely performed increase/decrease based on if followed by positive/negative reinforcement

Behaviorally based attitude

attitude based on observations of how one behaves towards object

Persuasive communication

communication advocating particular side of an issue.

Changing attitudes= ____________ mentality

"fight fire with fire"

Counterattitudinal advocacy

process where people are induced to state opinion or attitude that is against their own, creating dissonance

Yale attitude change approach

people are most likely to change attitude in response to persuasive messages focusing on "who said what to whom"

Elaboration Likelihood model

Two ways communication changes attitude change (centrally and peripherally)

Central route of persuasion

elaborate on persuasive communication if have ability/motivation to listen carefully

peripheral route to persuasion

do not elaborate but are swayed by peripheral cues

More relevant issue = more likely to take the __________________

central route to persuasion

need for cognition

variable reflecting extent to which people engage in/enjoy effortful cognitive activities.

People who analyze the topic are more likely to ____________ than those who use peripheral cues

maintain attitude over time

behave consistently with attitude

more resistant to counterpersuasion

fear-arousing communications

persuasive messages attempt to change attitude by arousing fear

Heuristic-systematic model of persuasion

explain the two ways persuasive communications can cause attitude change (heuristics or systematic processing)

Attitude inoculation

people immune to attempts to change attitude by initially exposing them to small arguments against position

Resist persuasive messages by

being alert to product pacement

reactance theory

idea when people feel freedom to perform behavior is threatened, unpleasant state of reactance is aroused and is reduced by performing threatened behavior.

Attitude accessibility

strength of association between object and evaluation of object is measured by speed in which person can report how they feel.

theory of planned behavior

best predictors of person's planned behaviors are the attitudes towards the behavior/norms/perceived control.

Attitudes must be ___________ for behavior to be predicted.

specific

Subjective norms

beliefs about how people they care about view their behavior

Perceived behavioral control

intentions are influenced by ease they believe they can perform the behavior.

Subliminal messaging

words or pictures that are not consciously perceived but may influences judgments, attitudes, and behaviors.