Research Design and Data Analysis Study Guide

Qualitative Research

Not necessarily useful for identifying relationships between variables.

Observational Research

Limited to variables that are easily observable.

Correlational Study

A research approach focusing on how variables relate to one another.

Survey

A quantitative research strategy for systematically collecting information from a group of individuals, which can then be generalized to a larger group of interest.

Open-ended Question

Participants answer using their own words.

Closed-ended Question

Participants answer using a predetermined set of response options.

Scale

A measurement strategy that assigns a number to represent the degree to which a person possesses or exhibits the target variable.

Summated Ratings Scale (Likert Scale)

Participants evaluate a series of statements using predetermined response options, with responses summed to represent overall measurement.

Demand Characteristics

Participant awareness that may influence their responses.

Social Desirability

The tendency to respond in a manner that will be viewed favorably by others.

Evaluation Apprehension

Anxiety about how responses appear to the researcher.

Distractor Items

Included to mislead participants about the real purpose of the scale.

Interviews

In-person or over the phone.

Paper Surveys

Efficient for groups.

Online Surveys

An increasingly popular method.

Response Rate

The proportion of the invited sample that actually completes the survey.

Acquiescent Response Set

Tendency to agree with most items, regardless of content.

Forced Choice Scale

Requires participants to choose between two response options.

Error of Central Tendency

A response bias where participants avoid using extreme response alternatives.

Internal Consistency Reliability

How interrelated are the individual items in the scale?

Test-Retest Reliability

How consistent is the scale over time?

Alternative-Form (or Equivalent-Form) Reliability

How consistent is the scale with other comparable measures of the variable?

Concurrent Validity

Does the scale relate to a relevant outcome or behavior measured at the same time?

Predictive Validity

Does the scale relate to a relevant outcome or behavior that occurs in the future?

Face Validity

Does the scale appear to be measuring the variable?

Content Validity

Do the items on the scale represent various aspects of the variable being measured?

Construct Validity

Does the scale actually measure the intended variable?

Convergent Validity

Does the scale relate to other measures of the variable?

Discriminant Validity

Does the scale relate to measures of unrelated variables?

Criterion Validity

Does the scale relate to a relevant outcome or behavior?

Calculating the Participant's Score

Sum Ratings on All Items.

Reverse-Coding

A method to adjust scores based on response agreement.

Cronbach's Alpha

Ranges from 0 to 1.0 to evaluate internal consistency reliability.

Variability

The degree to which individual measurements differ.

Standard Deviation (SD)

Indicates how much, on average, an individual score differs from the mean.

Statistical Hypothesis Testing

Evaluating the probability of obtaining results based on the researcher's prediction, represented with the symbol p.

Statistically Significant

Conclusion when the probability suggests the hypothesis is likely correct given the data.

Nondirectional Hypothesis

Does not specify how two variables are related.

Directional Hypothesis

Makes a specific prediction about the relationship between two variables.

Experimental Design

Shows a relationship between variables, helping establish causality.

Non-Experimental Design

Results are more generalizable to real-world settings.

Ecological Validity

Mimics real-world conditions.

Trying to Ignore

Act of resisting interaction with a distraction.

Distraction

Impact on cognitive focus and task performance.

Independent Variable (IV)

Factor manipulated to observe effects on the dependent variable.

Dependent Variable (DV)

Outcome measured to assess impact of IV.

High-Restriction Group

Participants prohibited from using phones during study.

Low-Restriction Group

Participants allowed limited phone use during study.

Consent

Participants informed about study details before participation.

Measurement

Test of knowledge conducted post-lecture for data collection.

Independent Samples t-Test

Statistical test comparing means of two independent groups.

t-Value

Measures difference between group means relative to variability.

p-Value

Probability indicating likelihood results are due to chance.

Effect Size (d)

Quantifies strength of observed effect between groups.

Alternate Explanations

Consideration of confounding variables affecting study results.

Manipulation Check

Assessment to verify effectiveness of the independent variable.

Placebo Group

Participants believe receiving treatment but receive none.

Empty Control Group

Group receiving no treatment, only assessed on DV.

Waiting-list Control (WLC) Group

Participants receive treatment later, after experimental group.

Double-blind Design

Neither participants nor experimenters know treatment assignments.

Omnibus F-test

Tests for significant differences among three or more groups.

Post-hoc Tests

Follow-up tests identifying specific group differences.

Natural Helpers

Non-professionals providing support compared to professionals.

Therapeutic Relationship

Connection between therapist and client influencing outcomes.

Substance Use Disorder

Condition characterized by compulsive substance use despite harm.

Homeless Adolescents

Youth experiencing homelessness, distinct from adult populations.

3-Group Design

Study structure allowing comparison among three distinct groups.

Sampling Methods

Techniques used to select participants for a study.

Risky Behaviors

Actions that increase the likelihood of negative outcomes.

Statistical Significance

Likelihood that results are not due to random chance.

Cognitive Focus

Concentration on specific tasks or information.