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Qualitative Research
Not necessarily useful for identifying relationships between variables.
Observational Research
Limited to variables that are easily observable.
Correlational Study
A research approach focusing on how variables relate to one another.
Survey
A quantitative research strategy for systematically collecting information from a group of individuals, which can then be generalized to a larger group of interest.
Open-ended Question
Participants answer using their own words.
Closed-ended Question
Participants answer using a predetermined set of response options.
Scale
A measurement strategy that assigns a number to represent the degree to which a person possesses or exhibits the target variable.
Summated Ratings Scale (Likert Scale)
Participants evaluate a series of statements using predetermined response options, with responses summed to represent overall measurement.
Demand Characteristics
Participant awareness that may influence their responses.
Social Desirability
The tendency to respond in a manner that will be viewed favorably by others.
Evaluation Apprehension
Anxiety about how responses appear to the researcher.
Distractor Items
Included to mislead participants about the real purpose of the scale.
Interviews
In-person or over the phone.
Paper Surveys
Efficient for groups.
Online Surveys
An increasingly popular method.
Response Rate
The proportion of the invited sample that actually completes the survey.
Acquiescent Response Set
Tendency to agree with most items, regardless of content.
Forced Choice Scale
Requires participants to choose between two response options.
Error of Central Tendency
A response bias where participants avoid using extreme response alternatives.
Internal Consistency Reliability
How interrelated are the individual items in the scale?
Test-Retest Reliability
How consistent is the scale over time?
Alternative-Form (or Equivalent-Form) Reliability
How consistent is the scale with other comparable measures of the variable?
Concurrent Validity
Does the scale relate to a relevant outcome or behavior measured at the same time?
Predictive Validity
Does the scale relate to a relevant outcome or behavior that occurs in the future?
Face Validity
Does the scale appear to be measuring the variable?
Content Validity
Do the items on the scale represent various aspects of the variable being measured?
Construct Validity
Does the scale actually measure the intended variable?
Convergent Validity
Does the scale relate to other measures of the variable?
Discriminant Validity
Does the scale relate to measures of unrelated variables?
Criterion Validity
Does the scale relate to a relevant outcome or behavior?
Calculating the Participant's Score
Sum Ratings on All Items.
Reverse-Coding
A method to adjust scores based on response agreement.
Cronbach's Alpha
Ranges from 0 to 1.0 to evaluate internal consistency reliability.
Variability
The degree to which individual measurements differ.
Standard Deviation (SD)
Indicates how much, on average, an individual score differs from the mean.
Statistical Hypothesis Testing
Evaluating the probability of obtaining results based on the researcher's prediction, represented with the symbol p.
Statistically Significant
Conclusion when the probability suggests the hypothesis is likely correct given the data.
Nondirectional Hypothesis
Does not specify how two variables are related.
Directional Hypothesis
Makes a specific prediction about the relationship between two variables.
Experimental Design
Shows a relationship between variables, helping establish causality.
Non-Experimental Design
Results are more generalizable to real-world settings.
Ecological Validity
Mimics real-world conditions.
Trying to Ignore
Act of resisting interaction with a distraction.
Distraction
Impact on cognitive focus and task performance.
Independent Variable (IV)
Factor manipulated to observe effects on the dependent variable.
Dependent Variable (DV)
Outcome measured to assess impact of IV.
High-Restriction Group
Participants prohibited from using phones during study.
Low-Restriction Group
Participants allowed limited phone use during study.
Consent
Participants informed about study details before participation.
Measurement
Test of knowledge conducted post-lecture for data collection.
Independent Samples t-Test
Statistical test comparing means of two independent groups.
t-Value
Measures difference between group means relative to variability.
p-Value
Probability indicating likelihood results are due to chance.
Effect Size (d)
Quantifies strength of observed effect between groups.
Alternate Explanations
Consideration of confounding variables affecting study results.
Manipulation Check
Assessment to verify effectiveness of the independent variable.
Placebo Group
Participants believe receiving treatment but receive none.
Empty Control Group
Group receiving no treatment, only assessed on DV.
Waiting-list Control (WLC) Group
Participants receive treatment later, after experimental group.
Double-blind Design
Neither participants nor experimenters know treatment assignments.
Omnibus F-test
Tests for significant differences among three or more groups.
Post-hoc Tests
Follow-up tests identifying specific group differences.
Natural Helpers
Non-professionals providing support compared to professionals.
Therapeutic Relationship
Connection between therapist and client influencing outcomes.
Substance Use Disorder
Condition characterized by compulsive substance use despite harm.
Homeless Adolescents
Youth experiencing homelessness, distinct from adult populations.
3-Group Design
Study structure allowing comparison among three distinct groups.
Sampling Methods
Techniques used to select participants for a study.
Risky Behaviors
Actions that increase the likelihood of negative outcomes.
Statistical Significance
Likelihood that results are not due to random chance.
Cognitive Focus
Concentration on specific tasks or information.
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