a process in which schema are changed in response to new information
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acoustic encoding
The encoding of sound, especially the sounds of words.
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algorithm
A methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem
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Alzheimer's disease
A neurocognitive disorder marked by neural plaques, often with an onset after age 80, and entailing a progressive decline in memory and other cognitive abilities.
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anterograde amnesia
A phenomenon in which a person suffers a brain injury from a stroke or an accident and loses the ability to form new memories since the injury is called
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assimilation
a process in which old or existing schema are used to interpret information
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autobiographical memory
a person's memory for episodes or experiences that occurred in their own life (may contain episodic and semantic memories that are personally relevant)
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automatic processing
The unconscious and effortless process of encoding information such as space, time, and frequency.
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availability heuristic
Estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability on memory; if instances come readily to mind, we presume such events are common
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capacity of short
term memory
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central executive
in Baddeley's model of working memory, this is the component that coordinates processes of working memory, including the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad; it focuses attention, switches attention between different tasks, and initiates long
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chunking
Organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically
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cognition
The mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating
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constructive memory
The process of bringing up old memories, filling in any missing pieces of information to make our recall more clear.
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context
dependent memory
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convergent thinking
Narrowing the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution
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creativity
The ability to produce novel and valuable ideas
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deep encoding/processing
Mental activity that requires deliberation and control and involves a sense of effort, or overcoming resistance.
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distributed practice
a learning procedure in which practice periods for a particular task are separated by lengthy rest periods or lengthy periods of practicing different activities or studying other material, rather than occurring close together in time. In many learning situations, distributed practice is found to be more effective than massed practice. Also called spaced learning; spaced practice
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divergent thinking
Expanding the number of possible problem solutions; creative thinking that diverges in different directions
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duration of short
term memory
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echoic memory
A momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3
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effortful processing
Mental activity that requires deliberation and control and involves intentional work.
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elaborative rehearsal
A memorization method that involves thinking about how new information relates to information already stored in long
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encoding
The processing of information into the memory system.
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encoding failure
Failure to process information into memory.
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episodic memory
the ability to remember personally experienced events associated with a particular time and place; in addition to recalling the facts of a past event, an individual has to engage in "mental time travel" and remember that they were the one who lived the event. The hippocampus plays a key role in episodic memory formation and retrieval
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executive functions
higher level cognitive processes of planning, decision making, problem solving, action sequencing, task assignment and organization, flexibility in goal selection, and goal
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explicit memory
Memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare
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forgetting curve
A graphic depiction of the amount of forgetting over time after learning has taken place. There is generally a sudden drop in retention shortly after learning, followed by a more gradual decline thereafter.
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framing
The way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments
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functional fixedness
The tendency to perceive an object only in terms of its most common use.
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gambler's fallacy
The belief that the odds of a chance event increase if the event hasn't occurred recently
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heuristic
A simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgements and solve problems efficiently
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iconic memory
A momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture
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imagination inflation
the increased likelihood that a person will judge an event as having actually occurred (e.g., during childhood) when they imagine the event before making such a judgment.
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implicit memory
Memory for information that is acquired and expressed unconsciously or automatically via facilitated performance on a related task.
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inadequate retrieval
The inability to recall long
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infantile amnesia
The inability to retrieve memories from much before age 3.
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levels of processing model
focuses on the depth of processing involved in memory, and predicts the deeper information is processed, the longer a memory trace will last; it includes structural, phenetic, and semantic processing
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long
term memory
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maintenance rehearsal
Repeating items over and over to maintain them in short
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massed practice
Encoding information all at once
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memory
The persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information is known as
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memory consolidation
The neural processes through which new information from STM is stabilized to result in the storage of enduring memories within LTM.
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memory retention
Holding on to information.
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mental set
A tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past
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metacognition
Awareness and understanding of one's own thought processes.
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method of loci
A mnemonic technique that involves associating items on a list with a sequence or tour of familiar physical locations.
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misinformation effect
Incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event.
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mnemonic device
A memory aid, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices.
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mood
congruent memory
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multi
store model
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phonemic encoding
focuses on how words sound; form of shallow processing
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phonological loop
a component that holds and manipulates auditory information over short intervals of time. For example, if one tried to remember a telephone number by repeating it over and over in the few moments before dialing, this effort would take place in the phonological loop.
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primacy effect
The tendency for facts, impressions, or items that are presented first to be better learned or remembered than material presented later in the sequence.
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priming
The effect in which recent experience of a stimulus facilitates or inhibits later processing of the same or a similar stimulus.
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proactive interference
The disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information.
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procedural memory
A type of implicit memory that involves motor skills and behavioral habits.
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prospective memory
One's ability to remember to do something in the future.
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prototype
A mental image or best example of a category
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recall
A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information without the use of any cues to jog one's memory.
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recency effect
a memory phenomenon in which the most recently presented facts, impressions, or items are learned or remembered better than material presented earlier.
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recognition
A measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned due to the presence of retrieval cues.
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rehearsal
The repetition of information, either to maintain it in consciousness or to encode it for storage.
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representativeness heuristic
Judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information
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repression
In psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety
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retrieval
The process of getting information out of memory storage.
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retrieval cues
stimuli that help people retrieve memories; can be present in the external environment, such as sounds, smells, and sights, and can also be internal to the person retrieving the memory, such as physical states or feelings
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retroactive interference
The disruption effect of new information on the recall of old information.
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retrograde amnesia
A phenomenon in which a person suffers a brain injury from a stroke or an accident and loses the ability to remember events immediately before the injury is called
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schemas
a collection of basic knowledge about a concept or entity that serves as a guide to perception, interpretation, imagination, or problem solving. For example, the schema "dorm room" suggests that a bed and a desk are probably part of the scene, that a microwave oven might or might not be, and that expensive Persian rugs probably will not be.
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semantic encoding
Cognitive encoding of new information that focuses on its meaningful aspects as opposed to its perceptual characteristics.
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semantic memory
A category of long
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sensory memory
The immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system.
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serial position effect
Our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list
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shallow encoding/processing
Cognitive processing of a stimulus that focuses on its superficial, perceptual characteristics rather than something more meaningful.
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short
term memory
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source amnesia
Attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined.
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spacing effect
The tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long
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state
dependent memory
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storage
The process of maintaining information in memory over time.
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structural encoding
(appearance) which is when we encode only the physical qualities of something; form of shallow processing
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sunk
cost fallacy
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testing effect
Enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information.
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tip
of
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visuospatial sketchpad
efers to our ability temporarily to hold visual and spatial information, such as the location of a parked car, or the route from home to a grocery store