Booklet 5 The Era of ‘Peaceful Coexistence’, 1953-1961

What was the issue with the ending of the Korean War 1953?

Both sides wanted an end to the war but couldn’t agree on which neutral countries to send North Korean and Chinese prisoners to

How did the USA intervene?

Eisenhower threatened China with US nuclear interference if they breached any terms of the July 1953 armistice → brinkmanship

What was the issue with China, Taiwan + the Offshore Islands 1954-58? (2)

• In 1954 Chiang Kai-shek (leader of Taiwan) authorized the movement of troops to the islands of Quemoy and Matsu between mainland China and Taiwan

• In September Mao ordered the bombing of the occupied offshore islands

How did the US intervene? (4)

• Dulles and Eisenhower let China know that the US might use nuclear weapons if the Communists attacked Taiwan

• Formosa Resolution in January 1955 pledging the American defence of Taiwan in the case of a communist invasion

• China backed off and the First Taiwan Straits Crisis ended in May 1954

• China again bombed Quemoy and Matsu and Eisenhower had to mobilise the 7^th fleet in order to persuade China to back down and settle the dispute peacefully

What was the issue in Iran 1953?

Fears that Mossadeq (Iranian Prime Minister) had links to Communists → nationalised the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company. Led to GB and US boycotting Iranian oil

How did the US intervene? (2)

• US decided to overthrow Mosaddeq. Mosaddeq appealed to Moscow for help

• CIA orchestrated ‘communist’ violent demonstrations and paid street mobs to seize government buildings; Mossadeq quit and the US-supported Shah was returned to power

What was the issue during the Suez Crisis 1956? (3)

• Nasser –> President of Egypt flirted with both US and Soviets 

• Nationalised the British-owned Suez Canal 

• Britain, France and Israel launched a combined attack on Egypt without consulting or informing the US

How did the US intervene? (4)

• Sponsored a UN resolution for a ceasefire (supported by the USSR)

• Applied diplomatic and financial pressure on Britain, France and Israel to withdraw

• Eisenhower opposed the invasion as he feared alienating Arab states and provoking Soviet intervention

• The canal remained under Egyptian control but the crisis pushed Nasser closer to the USSR

What was the issue in Guatemala 1953-54? (3)

• Monroe Doctrine → The USA viewed South America as their backyard; in 1949, they formed the Organisation of American States (OAS) to prevent the spread of communism in South America

• Arbenz (new president) of Guatemala wanted to instigate land reform to tackle poverty

• The US was alarmed as they believed he intended to impose communist policies

How did the US intervene? (3)

• US supported Armas, a staunch anti-communist, to be his replacement. 

• CIA supplied Armas with funds and aid, including two US-piloted planes; he successfully overthrew Arbenz.

• Once became president, Armas massacred of hundreds of political opponents

What was the issue in Cuba 1959-61? (2)

• In Jan 1959 the US-supported dictator of Cuba, Batista, was overthrown by the left-wing Castro and Che Guevara

• In 1960, Soviet deputy Premier Mikoyan visited Cuba and arranged a loan of $100 million, and Castro forcibly nationalised US oil companies in Cuba

How did the US intervene?

• April 1960 Eisenhower placed an embargo on Cuban sugar imports and instructed the CIA to train Cuban exiles in Guatemala for an invasion

• In Jan 1961, the two countries broke off diplomatic ties

How similar were Eisenhower’s policies 1953-61, to Truman's policies (1945-52)?

Both intervened in multiple multiple countries, but Truman focused on Europe + economic aid, whereas Eisenhower was more focused on massive retalliation

When did Stalin die?

5th March 1953

Who was Stalin’s successor?

Nikita Khrushchev

When was Khrushchev’s ‘secret police'?

25th February 1956

What was Khrushchev’s secret speech?

In this speech Khrushchev denounced Stalin and criticised Stalinism (cult of personality around Stalin, central planned economy, secret police, press censorship, one-party system), suggesting that the USSR was to take a different approach from the terror and confrontation of the past 30 years

What did the secret speech mark the beginning of?

Destalinisation

How did the communist bloc react to the secret speech? (2)

• All the stalinists were unhappy + believed Khrushchev was not without guilt himself

• Led to major uprisings in Poland (June-Oct 1956) + Hungary (Oct-Nov 1956)

How did the West react to the secret speech?

Saw it as the perfect propaganda

What were the 6 causes of peaceful coexistence?

• Change in leadership

• Economic factors

• Social factors

• Military factors

• Geopolitical factors

• Other factors

Explain a change in leadership as a factor pushing for improved relations, in terms of the USSR (2)

• Change from Stalin to Nikita Khrushchev

• Khrushchev had 5 main foreign policy objectives

  • 1. USSR must remain dominant communist state

  • 2. USSR maintain high control of satellite states

  • 3. Prevent Germany from rearming (stop – they’re still worried 😭)

  • 4. Expand USSR’s nuclear arms + keep up in the arms race

  • 5. Cut spending on conventional forces

  • 6. Not provoke the USA → keep tensions low

Explain a change in leadership as a factor pushing for improved relations, in terms of the US (3)

• Eisenhower → New look policy, roll back + massive retaliation

• Eisenhower was very committed to peace

• However, Dulles was very anti-communist and was one of the architects of ‘Roll Back’

Explain economic factors as a factor pushing for improved relations in terms of the USSR

The Soviet economy was weak → 1/3 of Soviet spending was on the military, so an easing of tensions would allow the USSR to spend more on the economy

Explain economic factors as a factor pushing for improved relations in terms of the USSR (3)

• The US economy was stronger, but there were recessions in 1953 and 1958

• Also Eisenhower was concerned to keep taxes + gov spending low

• Military spending had risen to around 12% of GNP

Explain social factors as a factor pushing for improved relations in terms of the USSR

• Destalinisation → prison camps opened up, press censorship relaxed + Stalin criticised for his wrongdoing

• This policy shift was done to strengthen the hold of the communist gov on the people of the USSR + E. EU, which would allow for domestic reform

Explain military factors as a factor pushing for improved relations (3)

• Development of the hydrogen bomb was an incentive to improve relations in hopes of decreasing the chance of war

• Also, the USSR was catching up with the US nuclear arms, so the US was wary of the Soviets

• Both the US + the USSR were concerned about excessive military spending, especially on conventional forces

Explain geo-political factors as a factor pushing for improved relations (3)

• The formation of the Warsaw Pact in reaction to West Germany joining NATO

• In the East, in addition to the war in Korea, there would be conflict over Taiwan + an emerging conflict in Vietnam, Latin America (e.g. Cuba), and Africa (e.g. Suez)

• At the same time, China was developing her own role in the world separate from the influence of Moscow, which worried the USSR → the US, however, saw them operating as one

Explain other factors as a factor pushing for improved relations (2)

• America's allies in NATO also were worried by the policy of brinkmanship and put pressure on Dulles to talk to the USSR, with Churchill pushing for a summit between the 2 sides as early as 1953

• Unrest in the Soviet Bloc – notably the East German uprising of 1953 – was a concern to the USSR; peaceful co-existence would allow them to focus on reforms and strengthen the USSR’s position within the communist bloc

When was the East German Uprising?

June 1953

What happened during the East German Uprising?

• Started about unreasonable production quotas → spread from Berlin to more than 400 places. Calls for fundamental changes and free elections. Ulbricht sent in tanks, and the Red Army fired on protestors.

• 25,000 arrests and 400 executions

What was the term for the increased co-operating through summits?

Summit Diplomacy

When was the Austrian State Treaty?

May 1955

What was the significance of the Austrian State Treaty? (2)

• Austria, previously divided into occupation zones after WWII, was declared a neutral state and all occupying forces withdrew

• The agreement reflected a new willingness for negotiation under Khrushchev and Malenkov, though Austria was less strategically important than Germany and it showed as it took 10 years to reach an agreement

When was the Geneva Summit?

July 1955

Who was at the Geneva Summit + What was discussed?

• US, USSR, UK, France

• Open Skies Proposal → Eisenhower proposed free communications between the two countries, agreements on the peaceful use of atomic power, disarmament and an ‘open skies’ policy

• Future of Germany:  Eisenhower proposed reunifying Germany with free elections but Khrushchev rejected this unless Germany was completely disarmed

What was the outcome of the Geneva Summit?

The summit achieved almost nothing concrete, yet people spoke of the ‘spirit of Geneva’ and it was a great success for Eisenhower

When was the Polish Uprising?

June-Oct 1956

What happened during the Polish Uprising? (4)

• A strike → wage cuts and working conditions led to anti-communist uprising 

• Khrushchev met with Gomulka and agreed he could lead Poland if he didn’t reform in a way that threatened communist rule.

• Poland stayed part of Warsaw Pact

• No USSR force used

When was the Hungarian Uprising?

Oct-Nov 1956

What happened during the Hungarian Uprising? (3)

• A student revolt demanding reforms (including Nagy’s leadership, free elections and Soviet withdrawal) escalated into armed rebellion

• Nagy became PM (24 Oct) and USSR briefly withdrew troops (28 Oct), but after Hungary talked abt leaving the Warsaw Pact, the USSR invaded in November, crushing the uprising

• Around 4,000 died and 200,000 fled into exile

When was the Berlin Ultimatum?

November 1958

What was the Berlin Ultimatum? (4)

• Khrushchev calls for peace treaty with 2 German states, demands US withdraw troops from west Berlin within 6 months, and calls for Berlin to become a free city

• Threatened to cut off west Berlin

• 31^st Dec 1958: West rejects ultimatum 

• June 1959 – Khrushchev renews it

When was the Camp David meeting?

September 1959

What happened during the Camp David meeting + why was this significant?

• Khrushchev became the first communist leader to visit the USA

• Discussed the Berlin Crisis

When was the Paris Summit?

May 1960

What was the significance of the Paris Summit?

A day before, the Soviets shot down a U-2 spy plane which the US denies was theirs; However, the pilot was American + the US had been exposed

When did JFK become president?

1961

When was the Vienna Summit?

June 1961

What was the significance of the Vienna Summit?

• It was a failure because Kennedy + Khrushchev couldn’t agree on anything

• Kennedy though Khrushchev saw him as weak + inexperienced

What marked the end of the era of peaceful co-existence?

July 1961 → Kennedy asked Congress to increase defence spending and on the 25^th July called for a buildup up of NATO forces

When did West Germany become a member of NATO?

May 1955

What was the Hallstein Doctrine + why was it significant?

• A West German policy (1955) refusing diplomatic relations with any country recognising East Germany (except the USSR)

• It aimed to isolate the GDR internationally and reinforced West Germany’s claim to represent all Germans

Why did Khrushchev want to cause tensions over Berlin?

• Wanted to minimise US influence in Germany → wanted to keep it weak so no invasions

• By 1958, Sino-Soviet relations were deteriorating

• West Germany was now a member of NATO (May 1955)

• USSR’s hold on E. EU was fragile

• No restrictions for people moving between both sides

When did Khrushchev call for a peace treaty with the 2 German states?

10 Nov 1958

When + what was the Berlin Ultimatum?

• 27 Nov 1958

• Khrushchev demanded the US withdraw troops from West Berlin within six months and that the city become a ‘free city’; if refused, he threatened to sign a treaty with East Germany giving it control over access routes to West Berlin

When did the West reject the ultimatum?

31 Dec 1958

When did Khrushchev renew the ultimatum?

June 1959

Why was East Germany vulnerable by the mid-1950s?

The GDR had a weak economy and relied heavily on Soviet support, while neighbouring West Germany was experiencing rapid economic growth

Why did many East Germans move to West Germany before 1961?

Living standards were far higher in the FRG and the Berlin border was relatively open, making migration easier

How many East Germans fled to the West between 1945 and 1961?

Around 1/6 of the East German population, many of them young and skilled workers

Why was Berlin strategically important during the Cold War?

It provided a way for the USSR to pressure the West and force negotiations; Khrushchev called Berlin “the testicles of the West.”

Why did Khrushchev want to take a tougher stance on Berlin?

He faced criticism at home and from China and wanted to demonstrate Soviet strength

How did NATO decisions increase tensions over Berlin?

In 1958 NATO decided to equip West Germany with nuclear missiles, alarming the USSR

What was President Kennedy’s main priority regarding Berlin?

Ensuring Western access to West Berlin rather than controlling the whole city

Why did the Berlin situation worsen in 1960–61?

Growing unrest in East Germany and increasing numbers of people fleeing to the West threatened the stability of the GDR

Why did Khrushchev believe action was necessary by 1961?

He feared the GDR was close to collapse due to mass emigration and political instability

What happened on 12 August 1961 in Berlin?

Around 4,000 refugees fled from East to West Berlin in a single day, highlighting the scale of the migration crisis

When was the Berlin Wall built?

13 Aug 1961

When was the Checkpoint Charlie standoff?

27-28 Oct 1961

What was the significance of the Checkpoint Charlie standoff?

• US and Soviet tanks faced each other at the Berlin border crossing in October 1961, bringing the superpowers close to direct conflict

• However both sides withdrew, showing neither wanted escalation and reinforcing acceptance of the Berlin Wall and the division of Berlin

Why was the Warsaw Pact created in 1955?

Created by the USSR in response to NATO expansion, particularly West Germany joining NATO in 1955, an attack on one member was treated as an attack on all

How did the Warsaw Pact differ from NATO?

Member states were far more tightly controlled by the USSR → weapons and military equipment were supplied by Moscow, and Soviet troops were stationed in member states

Why did the USSR feel threatened before the Warsaw Pact?

The creation of NATO and US military bases across Europe and Turkey made the USSR feel strategically encircled

When did the US lose its nuclear monopoly?

1949 → when the USSR successfully tested its first atomic bomb

When were hydrogen bombs first developed + why were they significant?

• The USA developed the H-bomb in 1952

• They were far more powerful and destructive than atomic bombs, dramatically escalating the arms race

Why were ICBMs important in the Cold War?

ICBMs could deliver nuclear weapons across continents, allowing the USSR to potentially strike Western Europe and eventually the USA directly

When did the USSR first launch an ICBM?

1957

Why did ICBMs intensify the arms race?

They increased the speed and reach of nuclear attacks, making nuclear war more immediate and harder to defend against

What was the Gaither Report?

A 1957 report warning that the USA was falling behind the USSR in missile production, fuelling fears of a ‘missile gap’

Was the missile gap real?

No → U-2 spy plane intelligence showed the USA actually had a significant lead in nuclear weapons

How did Khrushchev use nuclear propaganda?

Claimed the USSR was producing missiles “like sausages” to exaggerate Soviet strength and intimidate the West

Why did Khrushchev want to reduce conventional forces?

To reduce military spending and shift resources toward consumer goods and economic development

How did Soviet conventional forces change by 1960?

Reduced from about 5 million troops to around 3.6 million

Why did nuclear weapons spending still continue in the USSR?

The need to keep up with US nuclear capabilities meant the arms race continued despite economic pressures

Why was the Space Race important in the Cold War?

It was a major propaganda contest and closely linked to missile technology used for nuclear weapons

What was Sputnik?

The first artificial satellite, launched by the USSR in October 1957

Why did Sputnik alarm the USA?

It demonstrated Soviet rocket technology and suggested the USSR could potentially deliver nuclear missiles across long distances

What was Explorer I?

The first US satellite, launched in January 1958 in response to Sputnik

What was NASA?

The US space agency created in July 1958 to coordinate American space exploration and technology

Who was the first human in space?

Yuri Gagarin, a Soviet cosmonaut who orbited Earth in 1961

Why did Kennedy promise to land a man on the Moon?

To regain US prestige and demonstrate technological superiority over the USSR in the Space Race