HIST 0200 - THIRD EXAM

What did the Edict of Fontainebleau (1685) do?

Louis XIV revoked Edict of Nantes, ending religious tolerance for Huguenots. Led to mass Protestant emigration and helped develop Louis as absolutist ruler.

Hobbes' main argument in Leviathan?

Life in state of nature is "nasty, brutish, and short." Need single all-powerful sovereign to maintain peace and order

Bossuet's justification for absolutism?

Divine right of kings - king's authority is sacred, borrowed from God, absolute and beyond reproach. "All the state is in him

What is an absolute ruler

Power greater than any challenge from body politic. Asserted rights to make laws, levy taxes, appoint officials. "I am the State"

What is constitutional rule?

Ruler's power limited by law and accountable to governed. Authority operates within constitution. Government bound by consent of citizens (Locke)

What did Louis XIV do to control nobility and church?

Versailles to control nobility, Gallicanism to control church, abolished Edict of Nantes (1681) for religious unification

What was England's Glorious Revolution (1688)?

Overthrow of James II by William III and Mary. Created quasi-parliamentary monarchy. Bill of Rights set limits on monarch, established Parliament's powers.

What was Peter the Great's impact?

Brought autocracy to Russia, integrated country into European state system. Russia became largest country in world.

What caused War of Spanish Succession?

Charles II (last Habsburg of Spain) died childless. Two candidates: Austrian Archduke Charles vs French Prince Philip (Louis XIV's grandson).

Key outcomes of Treaty of Utrecht (1713)

Philip V kept Spain but renounced French throne. Britain gained Gibraltar, Minorca, American territories, and Asiento (slave trade contract). Balance of power principle established.

What was the Asiento?

Britain's exclusive 30-year contract to supply enslaved Africans to Spanish America.

What was Queen Anne's War?

North American theater of War of Spanish Succession (1702-1713). British captured Port Royal, renamed Annapolis Royal.

How did Prussia and Russia emerge as powers?

Both created militarized states merging military and bureaucracy. Prussia: Frederick William I built barracks, made military career all-consuming. Russia: Peter the Great modernized westward. Both emphasized meritocracy over nobility.

Kant's definition of Enlightenment?

Emergence from self-imposed immaturity - inability to think for oneself due to lack of courage. Motto: "Sapere aude" (Dare to know). Called his era "age of enlightenment," not fully enlightened

Locke's argument for toleration?

State's power limited to protecting civil interests (life, liberty, property). Care of soul is individual matter between person and God. State and church have separate jurisdictions.

Frederick II's enlightened absolutism?

Ruler is "first servant of state" to maintain laws and promote general welfare. Advocates religious tolerance (persecution causes emigration; tolerance brings prosperity)

Main features of Enlightenment as collective venture?

Common language (French), "Republic of Letters," coffee houses, salons, learned societies. Based on interchange of ideas, not social rank

Enlightenment thinking about women? A

Contradictory. Some (Voltaire, Diderot) argued for equality; others (Rousseau) emphasized biological determinism. Medical discourse portrayed women as separate species defined by reproduction

Most widely read Enlightenment books?

NOT elite philosophes but professional writers producing scandals, pornography, newspapers. Political libels and scandalous chronicles were most popular forbidden literatur

Changes in concept of kingship?

Religious legitimation eroded. Kingship became secularized, lost proprietary character. By end of century, divine right weakening; king becoming servant of state.

Anti-imperialist arguments (Gibbon)

Empires inevitably decline. Over-expansion leads to faster fall. Worst consequence: corruption of metropolis (culturally, morally, economically - made people lazy and dependent)

Spanish empire criticism?

Imperialism made Spaniards lazy - believed work unnecessary because of colonial silver. Failed to build productive infrastructure. Indies became principal, Spain secondary.

18th century imperial expansion?

Period of territorial expansion for all empires. Factors: large-scale movement of people (slave trade), interconnected markets, worldwide circulation of commodities, state-financed exploration.

British imperial reforms after Seven Years' War?

Colonies becoming richer, viewed as revenue source. Townshend Acts raised revenue. Declaratory Act asserted Parliament's authority. Increasing control while colonials increased local powers.

Spanish imperial reforms?

Administrative (intendants, replaced creoles with peninsulares), Military (professional army), Economic (abolished encomiendas, promoted freedom of trade). Goal: increase productivity and control.

Buffon's significance?

Introduced historical thinking into natural history. Argued nature has history, world older than Biblical chronology. Essential shift in Enlightenment science.

Enlightenment and slavery?

Contradictory. Natural rights and liberty arguments challenged it. Adam Smith argued it was economically inefficient. BUT racial theories (Hume, Kant) perpetuated hierarchies, and economic interests defended it.

18th century slavery numbers?

Caribbean: 4 million. Brazil: 2 million. North America: 300k-400k. Peak of slave trade.

How did Enlightenment reconceptualize wealth?

Mercantilists: wealth = precious metals. Enlightenment: wealth from production/consumption, labor, free trade. Emphasized domestic production and specialization.

Adam Smith's key ideas?

Division of labor increases productivity. Invisible hand. Labor theory of value. Free trade. Fair wages for prosperity. Criticized colonies as costly.

Why were ports like Bristol and Liverpool wealthy?

Profited through slave trade and transportation of goods from New World.

Five conditions for revolution?

1) Economic/fiscal strain, 2) Elite alienation/opposition, 3) Widespread popular anger, 4) Persuasive narrative of resistance, 5) Favorable international relationships.

Creole Patriotism?

By 1750, criollos felt like Americans, not Spaniards. Believed they had natural right to authority in Americas. Based on defense of Americas' climate, natural conditions, populations.

Age of Creole Revolts?

Quito riots (1765), Comunero Revolt in New Granada (1781) with 20,000 people. Wanted to abolish new taxes, expel hated agents, share power with monarch

What led American colonists to revolution?

No representation in Parliament. Stamp Act. Boston Massacre. Boston Tea Party. Thomas Paine's Common Sense (sold 500k copies) portrayed monarchy as tyrant

King George III's response?

Proclamation of Rebellion (1775) - treated it like civil war.

Why was French/Spanish support important?

Spain and France supplied troops. Made it international conflict, not just internal rebellion.

Join or Die cartoon?

Ben Franklin. Originally used in Seven Years' War to unite colonists under British leadership. Recycled to encourage colonies to unite against British rule.

Common Sense's impact?

Published January 1776, sold 500k copies. British monarchy not only tyrant but corrupted. Colonists have historical mission to fight for liberty.

Declaration of Independence key ideas?

All men created equal with unalienable rights (life, liberty, pursuit of happiness). Governments derive power from consent of governed. Right to alter/abolish destructive government.

Did life improve post-1776?

Native Americans: clear no - kept being pushed west. Africans: northern states provided gradual emancipation, but most remained enslaved. Women: minimal gains despite Abigail Adams' appeals.

Saint-Domingue's economic importance?

By 1780, wealthiest colony in Americas. Produced almost half of all sugar and coffee consumed i

Saint-Domingue's population?

~40,000 whites (divided by class), ~30,000 free people of color (uniquely wealthy), ~500,000 slaves (largest in Caribbean, extremely diverse).

How did American Revolution influence Haiti?

Strengthened white planters' desire for self-government. Free coloreds served in American war, returned as revolution leaders.

French Revolution's impact on Haiti?

Fall of Bastille changed colony. "Liberty, equality, fraternity" threatened Caribbean equilibrium. Friends of Blacks campaigned for rights. National Assembly granted limited rights to free coloreds - explosive response from whites.

1791 slave insurrection?

Armed with machetes, slaves revolted en masse. Within month, 1,000+ plantations destroyed, hundreds killed. Interesting: most fought for king of France (mistaken notion), NOT republican ideals.

Napoleon's Haiti expedition (1802)?

Sent brother-in-law Charles Leclerc to restore French authority, end revolt, reinstate slavery. Defeated by rebels aided by terrain, guerrilla warfare, yellow fever.

Haiti's independence?

1804: declared independence, changed name from Saint-Domingue. Constitution: "Slavery is forever abolished." First successful slave revolt in modern times.

Economic consequences for France?

French slave trade collapsed. Atlantic port economies shriveled (Bordeaux shrank 15%). No hope of reviving old Atlantic economy. Enslavers lost $300 billion-$1.5 trillion

Why was French Revolution more violent than American?

American became army vs army (invaders vs patriots). French was civil/political war - France vs France, then France vs Europe. No external invaders initially.

What triggered Estates General (1789)?

Monarchy crisis: financial poverty, bad climate/food production, riots. King needed refinancing, asked nobility and church. First meeting since 1614.

What did Third Estate do?

Declared themselves National Assembly of France, effectively disbanding other estates. Tennis Court Oath pledged to stay until new constitution. In 10 days, bourgeoisie assumed they should be sovereign government.

Popular violence in 1789?

Armed crowds besieged Bastille (symbol of autocratic power). Governor surrendered, prisoners released. Armed peasants raided nobility houses, forcing many into exile.

Why was army loyal to Assembly?

Remodeled after Seven Years' War humiliation. Professional, billeted in barracks, dedicated to France not monarch. Officers served in American war. Lafayette persuaded Paris garrison not to intervene.

Declaration of Rights of Man (1789)

Crystallization of Enlightenment ideals. Natural/civil rights: liberty, property, speech, press, religion, equal treatment. Popular sovereignty: law/government serve public will, not suppress it.

How did Revolution transform French identity?

Loyalty shifted from king to revolution, political process, French people. New French state replaced monarchy as center of loyalties. Political life replaced religion. Nation unified by people's participation, not distant monarch.

Constitution of 1791?

New constitution finally published. No longer venality or heredity of office. No nobility, peerage, hereditary distinctions, feudal regime. Nothing said monarchy needed to be abolished.

What caused counterrevolution and Terror?

1793: Vendée army grew, Austrians ready to invade. Committee of Public Safety declared every citizen conscripted for war. Militarization of entire nation - total war. Path to complete victory or total annihilation.

Army reforms?

Election of officers, abolition of corporal punishment, increase in pay, promotion on merit. 1789: 90%+ officers were noblemen → 1794: only 3%.

Constitution of Year III (1795)?

Founded Directory. More conservative than democratic Constitution of 1793. Represented consolidation after Terror.

Napoleon's European vision?

Envisioned Napoleonic Code creating European system of laws, judiciary. "One people in Europe." BUT actual goal was French-dominated empire with himself as emperor, family as rulers.

Why did Napoleon's project fail?

Misread national sentiment. Believed rational government would trump national loyalty. Unlike Rome (left local customs intact), demanded uniformity. Could destroy governments but nations "survived in hearts of peoples."

Napoleon's ironic legacy?

Inadvertently created modern nationalism he sought to suppress. Resistance to French conquest transformed scattered loyalties into self-conscious nationalist movements.

Post-1830 nationalism?

Unified revolutionary movement split into self-conscious nationalist movements (Young Italy, Young Poland). Each nation claiming messianic role.

Class basis of nationalism?

Discontented gentry/landowners, emerging middle classes, professional intellectuals as spokesmen. Education was nationalism's measure.

Was nationalism mass or elite before 1848?

Largely elite movement of educated classes. Most Europeans illiterate, defined nationality by religion not modern concepts. Exception: Irish movement under Daniel O'Connell.

Greek independence significance?

Greek struggle (1821-30) exceptional in combining middle-class ideology with genuine popular uprising. Inspirational for liberals across Europe.

Two forms of post-Napoleonic nationalism?

Liberal, democratic internationalism (Mazzini) - nation-building as step toward European federation. 2) Authoritarian, state-centered (Hegelian) - state as self-sufficient entity requiring conflict.

What was Treaty of Westphalia's significance?

Defined Europe as collection of sovereign states with geopolitical (not religious) interests. Balance of power became central concern.

Balance of power principle?

Central to European diplomacy post-Utrecht. No single power should dominate continent. Britain uniquely prioritized maintaining balance.

From absolutism to constitutional government?

1648-1700: Absolutism consolidates. 1688: English Glorious Revolution. 1776: American Revolution. 1789: French Revolution destroys absolutism, establishes popular sovereignty.

Popular sovereignty?

Legitimate political authority derives from "the people" not God or tradition. Revolutionary because it relocated source of power from monarch to nation. Required citizen participation

How did identity shift from religious to national?

Before 1648: wars fought over religion. After Westphalia: geopolitical interests. By 1789: identity based on nation (shared language, culture, participation). Replaced vertical loyalty (monarch) with horizontal (fellow citizens).

Republic of Letters?

Idealized international community of intellectuals sharing ideas:

• Common language (French replacing Latin)

• New institutions: coffee houses, salons, learned societies

• Based on ideas and merit, not rank or status

• Facilitated spread of Enlightenment across Europe

Mattered because it created transnational intellectual community that could challenge traditional authorities and spread revolutionary ideas rapidly.

Sommerville - "Absolutism and royalism"

"Absolutism" was a coherent 17th-century political theory shared across Europe arguing that princes were accountable only to God and could not be actively resisted. Despite practical variations, absolutist ideas succeeded in France but failed in England due to royal incompetence, not ideological defeat.

Outram - "Enlightenment thinking about gender"

The Enlightenment created fundamental contradictions by championing universal reason while simultaneously using medical and scientific discourse to define women as biologically inferior and confined to domestic roles. This made gender central to—not peripheral to—Enlightenment thought, as figures like Wollstonecraft exposed the logical collapse if women truly lacked reason.

Outram - "Science and the Enlightenment"

Science during the Enlightenment was institutionally weak and philosophically contested, not dominant. It remained entangled with theology and faced epistemological challenges about whether humans could truly know reality. Its significance was in raising fundamental questions rather than providing settled answers.

Darnton - "The Forbidden Bestsellers of pre-Revolutionary France"

The illegal books that French readers actually purchased before 1789 weren't the philosophical classics we study today, but scandalous libels and pornography that systematically delegitimized the monarchy by portraying it as morally corrupt. This forbidden literature was crucial to making the Revolution's collapse of royal authority culturally possible.

Sutherland - "The new economics of the Enlightenment"

Enlightenment economics witnessed the decline of mercantilism and the rise of new theories (physiocracy, Scottish political economy) centered on consumer demand, free trade, and market self-regulation. This shift, culminating in Adam Smith's work, threatened traditional hierarchies while promising economic growth—creating a paradox of liberty.

Armitage - "The American Revolution in Atlantic Perspective"

The American Revolution was an Atlantic phenomenon—a crisis within an increasingly integrated British empire, not a colonial rebellion against distant tyranny. It created American identity rather than expressing pre-existing nationalism, and its most revolutionary act was creating independent states from colonies, fundamentally transforming Atlantic politics.

Geggus - "The Haitian Revolution in Atlantic Perspective"

The Haitian Revolution produced the greatest social transformation of all Atlantic revolutions, achieving unprecedented abolition of slavery and independence. Yet it differed fundamentally from other revolutions because independence was the final act (forced by Bonaparte's attempt to restore slavery) rather than the starting point, and its leaders were authoritarian rather than democratic republicans.

Rapport - "The International Repercussion of the French Revolution"

The French Revolution reshaped the global political order through revolutionary ideology, military expansion, and conservative backlash. It created a fundamental paradox—simultaneously liberating (spreading rights and equality) and exploitative (military occupation and extraction)—that ultimately produced massive conservative resistance and redrew political maps across Europe, the Americas, and South Asia.

Hobsbawm - The Age of Revolutions, chap. 7

After 1830, European nationalism fragmented into self-conscious national movements driven by educated middle classes and intellectuals, not the masses. Before 1848, nationalism remained largely an elite phenomenon correlating with education expansion. Modern nationalism emerged specifically from the combined effects of the French and Industrial Revolutions.

Pagden - The Pursuit of Europe, Chapter 1

Napoleon's vision of European unity through the Napoleonic Code and rational administration fundamentally misunderstood emerging nationalism. His demand for uniformity (unlike Roman tolerance of local customs) and "spirit of conquest" inadvertently created the very nationalist resistance that destroyed his empire, ironically birthing modern European nationalism as his unintended legacy.

Pagden - The Pursuit of Europe, Chapter 2

Post-Napoleonic nationalism emerged in two competing forms: liberal, cosmopolitan internationalism (Mazzini) viewing nation-building as a step toward European federation, versus authoritarian, Hegelian state-centered nationalism that glorified conflict and made true European union philosophically impossible. This created nationalism's dual legacy of both democratic aspiration and aggressive imperialism.