Statistics Exam 1

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130 Terms

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Descriptive statistics

Summarize and describe a group of numbers from a research study

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Inferential statistics

Draw conclusions/make inferences that are based on the numbers from a research study but go beyond the numbers

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Variable

conditions or characteristic that can have different values

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Value

number or category

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Score

A particular person’s value on a variable

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Equal-interval

Numeric value in which differences between values correspond to differences in the things being measured

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Ratio-scale

an equal-interval variable is measured on a ratio scale if it has an absolute 0 point

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Rank-order

Numeric value in which values correspond to the relative position of things measured

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Nomial

Variable in which the values are categories

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Discrete variables

variable that has specific values and that cannot have values between these specific values

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Continuous variables

variable for there are an infinite number of values between any two variables

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Interval

range of values in a grouped frequency table that are grouped together

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Histogram

barlike graph of a frequency distribution in which the values are plotted along the horizontal axis and the height of each bar is the frequency of the value

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Unimodal distribution

frequency of distribution with one value clearly having a larger distribution than any other

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Bimodal distribution

frequency distribution with approximately two equal frequencies, each clearly larger than the others

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Multimodal distribution

frequency distribution with two or more high frequencies separated by a lower frequency

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Rectangular distribution

frequency distribution in which all values have approximately the same frequency

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Symmetrical distribution

the pattern of frequencies on the left and right side are mirror images of each other

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Skewed distribution

distribution in which the scores pile up on one side of the middle and are spread out on the other side; distribution that is not symmetrical

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Ceiling effect

score pile up at high end of distribution

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Floor effect

scores pile up at the low end of a distribution

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Normal curve

bell-shaped frequency distribution that is symmetrical and unimodal

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kurtosis

extent to which a frequency distribution deviates from a normal curve

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pseudoscience

uses methods, theories, assumptions, and conclusions that pretend to be scientific

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the properties of an abstract number system are

identity, magnitude, equal intervals, true zero

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identity

each number has a particular meaning

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magnitude

numbers have an inherent order from smaller to larger

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equal intervals

the difference between units is the same anywhere on the scale

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true zero

a nonarbitrary point indicating a zero level or the variable being measured

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nominal scales

lowest level of measurement; the do no match the number system well

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ordinal scales

have the property of magnitude as well as identity

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interval scales

have properties of ordinal scales, in addition to equal intervals between consecutive values

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ratio scales

provide the highest level of measurement

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central tendency

a typical or most representative value of a group of scores

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mean

arithmetic average of a group of scores

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mode

value with the greatest frequency in a distribution

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median

middle score when all the scores in a distribution are arranged from lowest to highest

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outlier

score with an extreme value in relation to the other scores in a distribution

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variance

measure of how spread out a set of scores are

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deviation score

score minus the mean

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squared deviation score

square of the difference between a score and the mean

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sum of squared deviations

total of each score’s squared difference from the mean

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standard deviation

square root of the average of the squared deviations from the mean

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computational formula

equation mathematically equivalent to the definitional formula

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definitional formula

equation for a statistical procedure directly showing the meaning of the procedure

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behavioral variable

any observable response of an organism

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stimulus variables

factors that have actual or potentially effects on an organism’s response

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organismic variables

any characteristics of a subject

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observed organismic variables

characteristics we can directly observe (age)

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response-inferred organismic variables

characteristics that we cannot observe (racial attitudes)

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dependent variabl

participants response to the manipulation

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independent variable

variable manipulated by the experiment

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manipulated independent variable

experimenter actively controls

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non-manipulated independent variables

researchers assign participants to groups based on preexisting characteristics

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causal relationship

one variable results in a predictable change in the other

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extraneous variable

unplanned and uncontrolled factors that can arise in a study and affet the outcome

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control

the procedures used to reduce extraneous influences in research

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ethical research with humans depends on what?

beneficence, autonomy, and justice

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beneficence

risk minimized and the benefits should be maximized

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autonomy

participants have a right to decide if they want to participate

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justice

both risks and benefits of research should be shared equally by all members of the population

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deception/concealment

involves deliberately misleading participants by giving false information or by withoulding some information

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debriefing

involves explaining to the participants the true nature of the deception/concealment as soon as possible

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informed consent

principle that participants have the right to know exactly what they are getting into before they agree to participate in a study

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Institutional Review Board

Formal body that reviews research proposals to determine if they meet ethical guidelines

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Diversity

refers to how well the research sample represents various ethnic, cultural, age, and gender groups

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z-score

the number of standard deviations that a score is above or below the mean of its distribution

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raw score

ordinary score before it has been manipulated

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normal distribution

frequency distribution that follows a normal curve

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normal curve

specific, mathematically defined, bell-shaped frequency distribution that is symmetrical and unimodal

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population

entire group of people to which a researcher intents the results of the study to apply

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sample

scores of the particular group of people studied

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population parameter

actual value of the mean, st. dev… for the population

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sample statistics

descriptive statistics such as the mean or standard deviation, figured from the scores in a group of people studied

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probability

expected relative frequency of an outcome; the proportion of successful outcomes to all outcomes

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outcome

term used in discussing probability for the result of an experiment

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expected relative frequency

number of successful outcomes divided by the total number of total outcomes you would expect to get if you repeated an experiment a large number of times

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long-run relative frequency interpretation of probability

understanding of probability as the proportion of a particular outcome that you would get if the experiment were repeated many times

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subjective interpretation of probability

way of understanding probability as the degree of one’s certainty that a particular outcome will occur

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hypothesis testing

procedure for deciding whether the outcome of a study supports a particular theory or practical innovation

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hypothesis

prediction, often based on informal observation, previous research, or theory, that is tested in a research study

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theory

set of principles that attempt to explain one or more facts, relationships, or events

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research hypothesis

statement in hypothesis testing about the predicted relation between populations

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null hypothesis

statement about a relation between populations that is the opposite of the research hypothesis (theres no difference)

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comparison distribution

represents the population situation if the null hypothesis is true

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cutoff sample score

point in hypothesis testing, on the comparison distribution at which, if reached or exceed by the sample score, you reject the null hypothesis

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conventional levels of significance

p<0.05, p<0.01

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statistically significant

conclusion that the results of a study would be unlikely if in fact the sample studied represents a population that is no different from the population in general

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directional hypothesis

research hypothesis predicting a particular direction of difference between popoulations o

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one-tailed test

hypothesis testing procedure for a directional hypothesis

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nondirectional hypothesis

research hypothesis that does not predict a particular direction of difference between the population

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two-tailed test

hypothesis testing procedure for a nondirectional hypothesis

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concurrent validity

assessing a measure by its correlation with criterion that has already been measured or can be measured simultaneously

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covergent validity

when different studies using different operational definitions produce similar findings

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criterion

variable we are attempting to predict in a regression

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criterion-related validity

measures that are established by correlations with known criterion measures

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effective range

the range over which the dependent measure accurately reflects the level of the dependent variable

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internal consistency reliability

index of homogeneity of the items of a measure

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interrater reliability

consistency of ratings between separate raters

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measurement error

any inaccuracy found in the measurement of the variable