APWH Unit 3 Chapters 18-20

Abraham Lincoln

16th president of the United States, who preserved the Union during the American Civil War and issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which began the process of freedom for America's enslaved people.

Antonio López de Santa Anna

a Mexican military leader and politician known for his role in the Texas Revolution and the Mexican-American War, often remembered for his shifting political alliances and military defeats.

Battle of the Little Bighorn

fought on June 25, 1876, was a significant conflict between the U.S. Army, led by Lt. Col. George A. Custer, and Northern Plains Indians, resulting in a decisive Native American victory.

Benito Juárez

a Mexican national hero and president who resisted French occupation, overthrew the Second Mexican Empire, and implemented liberal reforms to modernize the country.

British North America Act of 1867

united three British colonies into the Dominion of Canada, establishing a federal structure and serving as Canada's constitution until 1982.

Canadian Pacific Railroad

completed in 1885 to connect Eastern Canada with British Columbia, playing a crucial role in the economic development and unification of Canada.

Caudillos

charismatic military leaders in Latin America who gained power through personal loyalty and control over armed followers, often leading to unstable political conditions.

Domingo Faustino Sarmiento

an Argentine educator, writer, and president who promoted public education and modernization, famously critiquing caudillismo in his work "Facundo".

Dominion of Canada

established on July 1, 1867, as a self-governing entity within the British Empire, uniting several colonies under a federal government.

Durham Report

authored by John George Lambton, recommended the union of Upper and Lower Canada and the establishment of responsible government to address political unrest in the colonies.

Emancipation Proclamation

issued by President Abraham Lincoln on January 1, 1863, declared the freedom of enslaved people in Confederate states during the American Civil War.

Emiliano Zapata

a leading figure in the Mexican Revolution, known for championing agrarian reform and leading guerrilla actions in southern Mexico.

Francisco Villa (Pancho Villa)

a prominent Mexican revolutionary and guerrilla leader who played a key role in the Mexican Revolution, known for his military prowess and leadership of the División del Norte.

Gauchos

skilled horsemen and cowhands of the Argentine and Uruguayan Pampas, celebrated in folklore and literature as symbols of rural freedom and independence.

Indian Removal Act of 1830

authorized the U.S. president to relocate Native American tribes to lands west of the Mississippi River, leading to the forced migration known as the Trail of Tears.

John A. Macdonald

the first Prime Minister of Canada, instrumental in the country's founding and the creation of the Canadian Pacific Railway.

Juan Manuel de Rosas

an Argentine military and political leader who ruled Buenos Aires with dictatorial powers from 1835 to 1852.

Louis Riel

a Canadian Métis leader who led two resistance movements against the Canadian government, advocating for the rights of the Métis people.

Machismo

a cultural attitude that emphasizes exaggerated masculinity, often associated with power and a disregard for consequences, prevalent in Latin American society.

Manifest Destiny

the 19th-century belief that the United States was destined to expand its territory across North America to the Pacific Ocean.

Mexican-American War

as a conflict between the United States and Mexico, resulting in significant territorial gains for the U.S., including present-day California and New Mexico.

National Policy

a Canadian economic strategy in the late 19th century aimed at promoting industrialization and protecting domestic industries through tariffs.

Northwest Rebellion

an armed resistance by the Métis and Indigenous peoples in Canada, led by Louis Riel, against the Canadian government.

Porfirio Díaz

a Mexican general and politician who served as president for over three decades, known for his authoritarian rule and modernization efforts.

Railroad Time

the standardized time system adopted by U.S. and Canadian railroads in the 19th century to coordinate train schedules, leading to the creation of time zones.

Reconstruction

the period following the American Civil War (1865-1877) focused on rebuilding the South and integrating formerly enslaved people into society.

Seneca Falls Convention

held in 1848, was the first women's rights convention in the United States, marking the start of the organized women's suffrage movement.

Soldaderas

women who participated in the Mexican Revolution, serving as soldiers, nurses, and supporters, playing crucial roles in both combat and logistics.

Trail of Tears

the forced relocation of Native American tribes from the southeastern United States to Indian Territory west of the Mississippi River during the 1830s, resulting in the deaths of thousands due to harsh conditions.

U.S. Civil War

a conflict between the Northern states (Union) and Southern secessionist states (Confederacy) over issues including states' rights and slavery, culminating in the preservation of the Union and the abolition of slavery.

War of 1812

a military conflict between the United States and Great Britain, primarily over British restrictions on American trade and America's desire to expand its territory, ending with the Treaty of Ghent in 1815.

Wounded Knee

occurred in 1890 when U.S. troops killed hundreds of Lakota Sioux at Wounded Knee Creek in South Dakota, marking the end of the Indian Wars.

Abdülhamid II

the Ottoman sultan from 1876 to 1909, known for his autocratic rule, modernization efforts, and the use of pan-Islamism to counter Western influence.

Boxer Rebellion

an anti-foreign, anti-colonial uprising in China, led by the "Boxers," which was eventually suppressed by an international coalition.

Capitulations

agreements that allowed foreign powers to exercise jurisdiction over their nationals within the Ottoman Empire, often seen as undermining Ottoman sovereignty.

Cixi

a powerful Chinese ruler who effectively controlled the Qing dynasty for nearly half a century, known for her conservative policies and resistance to reform.

Cohong

a guild of Chinese merchants authorized to trade with Western merchants in Guangzhou before the Opium Wars, controlling foreign trade in China.

Commodore Matthew C. Perry

a U.S. naval officer who forced Japan to open to Western trade with the Treaty of Kanagawa in 1854, ending Japan's isolation.

Crimean War

a conflict in which Russia fought against an alliance of the Ottoman Empire, Britain, France, and Sardinia, primarily over territorial disputes in the Middle East.

Duma

the elected legislative body in imperial Russia, established after the 1905 revolution, which functioned until the 1917 revolution.

Emancipation Manifesto

issued by Tsar Alexander II in 1861, liberating the serfs in Russia and granting them the rights of free citizens.

Fukuzawa Yukichi

a Japanese author and educator influential in the Meiji Restoration, advocating for Western ideas to strengthen Japan's independence and modernize its society.

Hundred Days Reforms

an attempt by the Qing dynasty to modernize China's state and social systems following its defeat in the Sino-Japanese War, but the reforms were halted by a conservative coup led by Empress Dowager Cixi.

Ito Hirobumi

a prominent Japanese statesman and four-time Prime Minister, instrumental in drafting the Meiji Constitution and modernizing Japan's political system.

Janissaries

an elite military corps in the Ottoman Empire, known for their military prowess but eventually became a political force, abolished in 1826 by Sultan Mahmud II.

Lin Zexu

a Qing dynasty official known for his opposition to the opium trade, leading to the First Opium War between China and Britain.

Mahmud II

an Ottoman sultan who implemented significant Westernizing reforms, including the abolition of the Janissaries, to consolidate the empire.

Meiji Restoration

a political revolution that restored imperial rule in Japan, leading to rapid modernization and Westernization during the Meiji period.

Muhammad Ali

an Ottoman Albanian commander who became the ruler of Egypt, initiating significant military and economic reforms that modernized the region.

Mutsuhito

the Japanese emperor during the Meiji Restoration, under whose reign Japan transformed into a modern world power.

Nicholas II

the last emperor of Russia, whose reign ended with the Russian Revolution and his execution by the Bolsheviks in 1918.

Opium Wars

were two conflicts in the mid-19th century between China and Western powers, leading to significant territorial and commercial concessions to the victors.

Pogroms

were violent mob attacks against Jews, particularly in the Russian Empire, often condoned by authorities, occurring notably in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

Qing Dynasty

the last imperial dynasty of China, ruling from 1644 to 1911/12, known for its territorial expansion and eventual decline due to internal and external pressures.

Samurai

the military nobility and officer caste of medieval and early-modern Japan, known for their martial skills and adherence to the bushido code.

Self-Strengthening Movement

an effort by the Qing dynasty to modernize China's military and economy by adopting Western technology and methods.

Sergei Witte

a Russian statesman who served as Finance Minister and Prime Minister, known for his role in industrializing Russia and negotiating the end of the Russo-Japanese War.

Sultan Selim III

an Ottoman sultan who attempted significant reforms, including military modernization, but was deposed due to conservative opposition.

Taiping Rebellion

a massive civil war in China led by Hong Xiuquan, resulting in millions of deaths and weakening the Qing dynasty.

Tanzimat Era

a period of reform in the Ottoman Empire, aiming to modernize the state and integrate Western legal and administrative practices.

Tokugawa bafuku

also known as the Tokugawa Shogunate, was a feudal regime in Japan established by Tokugawa Ieyasu in 1603. It centralized power and maintained peace for over 250 years until the Meiji Restoration in 1868. The shogunate implemented a strict social hierarchy and isolationist foreign policy.

Treaty of Nanjing

the Treaty of Nanjing ended the First Opium War between China and Britain. It was the first of the "unequal treaties," forcing China to cede Hong Kong to Britain, pay an indemnity, and open five ports to British trade.

Tsar Alexander II

known for his significant reforms, including the Emancipation Act of 1861, which freed the serfs. His reign also saw improvements in Russia's infrastructure and military, although he maintained autocratic principles.

Unequal treaties

treaties imposed on China by Western powers in the 19th and early 20th centuries, starting with the Treaty of Nanjing. They resulted in significant territorial and sovereignty concessions from China to foreign powers.

Hong Xiuquan

the leader of the Taiping Rebellion (1850-1864) in China, a massive civil war against the Qing dynasty. He declared himself the Heavenly King of a new dynasty, leading to a conflict that resulted in millions of deaths.

Young Turks

a reformist group in the Ottoman Empire that led a revolution in 1908, restoring the constitution and establishing a constitutional government. Their rule saw modernization efforts but also contributed to the empire's eventual dissolution.

Zaibatsu

large industrial and financial conglomerates in Japan, prominent before World War II. They were family-owned and controlled significant sectors of the economy. Post-war, they were dissolved by Allied forces, but their influence persisted in the form of keiretsu.

Zemstvos

local self-government institutions in the Russian Empire, established in 1864. They provided social and economic services and became a liberal influence, advocating for reforms and playing a role in the revolutionary activities of the early 20th century.,

Berlin Conference

involved major European nations negotiating colonial claims in Africa, particularly the Congo River basin. It established rules for colonization and trade in Africa, declaring the Congo River basin neutral and forbidding slave trading.

Cecil John Rhodes

a British financier and statesman in South Africa, known for his role in expanding British territory in Africa. He founded the De Beers diamond company and established the Rhodes Scholarships.

Direct Rule

a colonial governance system where the colonizing country directly controls the administration and governance of the colony, often replacing local leaders with officials from the colonizing country.

East India Company

an English trading company established in 1600, which played a significant role in British imperialism in India. It controlled trade and politics in India until the mid-19th century.

Emilio Aguinaldo

a Filipino leader who fought for independence from Spain and later the United States. He played a key role in the Philippine Revolution and the Philippine-American War.

Great Game

the strategic rivalry and conflict between the British Empire and the Russian Empire for supremacy in Central Asia during the 19th century.

Indentured Labor

involves workers entering a contract to work for a specific period in exchange for passage, accommodation, or debt repayment. It was prevalent during European colonization and often resembled slavery.

Indian National COngress

a major political party in India that led the movement for independence from British rule and has been influential in India's political landscape.

Indirect Rule

a colonial governance system where local rulers maintain their positions of authority under the guidance and control of the colonizing power, often used by the British in Africa and Asia.

Khoikhoi

indigenous people of southwestern Africa, known for their pastoral lifestyle. They faced significant disruption and displacement during European colonization.

Leopold II

instrumental in the colonization of the Congo, where his regime was notorious for its exploitation and atrocities against the local population.

Lili'uokalani

the last reigning monarch of Hawaii, overthrown in 1893 by a group favoring annexation by the United States. She fought against annexation but ultimately saw Hawaii annexed in 1898.

Maori

the indigenous Polynesian people of New Zealand, known for their rich culture and history. They faced significant challenges during European colonization but have maintained a strong cultural identity.

Mssion Civilsatrice

This French term refers to the colonial ideology of "civilizing mission," used to justify European colonialism by claiming to bring civilization and enlightenment to colonized peoples.

Monroe Doctrine

Announced in 1823 by U.S. President James Monroe, this doctrine declared the Western Hemisphere closed to further European colonization and asserted U.S. influence in the region.

Omdurman

a decisive victory for Anglo-Egyptian forces over the Mahdist forces in Sudan, leading to British control over the region.

The Origin of Species

Written by Charles Darwin and published in 1859, "The Origin of Species" introduced the theory of evolution by natural selection, fundamentally changing the understanding of biological sciences.

Panama canal

a lock-type canal that connects the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans through the Isthmus of Panama. Completed in 1914, it significantly reduces travel time for ships by eliminating the need to navigate around South America. Initially controlled by the United States, it was transferred to Panama in 1999.

Ram Mohan Roy

an influential Indian reformer who advocated for social and educational reforms, including the abolition of practices like sati and the promotion of modern education.

Roosevelt

the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine asserted the U.S. right to intervene in Latin American countries to maintain stability and prevent European intervention.

Russo-Japanese War

the first time an Asian power, Japan, defeated a European power, Russia, in modern warfare. It was primarily fought over control of Korea and Manchuria.

Scientific Racism

pseudoscientific belief system sought to justify European colonial dominance by categorizing humans into hierarchical races, with Europeans at the top. It has been debunked by modern science.

Scramble for Africa

This term describes the rapid colonization of Africa by European powers in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, driven by competition for resources and strategic advantage.

South African War

Also known as the Boer War (1899-1902), this conflict was between the British Empire and the two Boer republics in South Africa, resulting in British victory and control over the region.

Spanish-Cuban-American War

This conflict, often referred to as the Spanish-American War, occurred in 1898, resulting in the U.S. gaining control over former Spanish territories like Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines.

Suez Canal

a crucial waterway in Egypt connecting the Mediterranean Sea to the Red Sea, facilitating shorter maritime routes between Europe and Asia.

Survival of the fittest

Coined by Herbert Spencer and popularized by Charles Darwin, this phrase describes the process of natural selection where organisms best adapted to their environment survive and reproduce.

Terra nullius

A legal concept meaning "land belonging to no one," used historically to justify the colonization of lands inhabited by Indigenous peoples.

Treaty of Waitangi

Signed in 1840 between the British Crown and Māori chiefs, this treaty is considered New Zealand's founding document, establishing British sovereignty while ostensibly guaranteeing Māori rights.

Xhosa

a Bantu ethnic group in South Africa known for their rich cultural heritage and history of resistance against colonial rule.